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A New 

Dairy Industry. 



Preparation and Sale of Artificial Mothers' 
Milk; Normal Infants' Milk. 



BY JAIN/IE:S FRED. SA.RG, 

LATE OF HESSCNHOF, LAKE CONSTANCE, GERMANY. 



BLACK FOREST FARM, 

KEMPSVILLE, VA. 

U. S. A. 



A NEW DAIRY 
INDUSTRY 



l^-eparatioti and Sale of Artificial Mothers' Milk 
"NOmiAL INFANTS' MILK" 



BY JAMES FRED. SARG .'^ - 

Late Of Hcsscjiliof^ Lake Constance^ (iciuiaiiy 



\\ ^ r.LACK FOREST FARM 
_v "^ KEMPSVILLE, VA. 

' U. S. A. ,' 

(novii^s%j 

Copvi-ic;ht, ISOli, by James Fred. Sarg. \^/ o'^ 

of- I 



&i>^^ 



NORFOLK : 
W. T. Barron & Co., Prixtkrs 
189(5 ' 



" That art on which a thousand millions of men are depend- 
ent for their sustenance, and two hundred millions of men ex- 
pend their daily toil, must be the most important of all ; the 
parent and precursor of all other arts. In every country, then, 
and at every period, the investigation of the principles on 
which the rational practice of this art is founded, ought to 
have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds." 
— ^James F. W. Johnston. 



.V 



!k 






CONTENTS. 



Pace 

Introduction /> 

Chapter I. — Milk and !\Iilking- 7 

II.— The Origin of Bacteria in Milk . 25 

III. — Decomposition of Milk 3r> 

W. — Preserving Milk by Chemicals. . 'Xl 

\. — Preser\-ation by Cooling .... 44 

\\. — Preservation b}' Heating .... 48 

VII. — Pasteurization o2 

VIII.— Sterilizing 63 

IX.— The Mortality of Infants .... 78 

X.— Artificial Mother's Milk; Normal 

Infants' Milk 99 

XI.— The Normal Dairy 130 

XII. — Conclusion 154 



INDEX. 



PACK 

Acid curdling •_>•! 

Acidity of milk ■)(> 

Albumen 11" 

Albuminoids !l-ll 

Anisol IJ 

Anorganic matter 14 

Arachine 1'^ 

Automatic sealing 72-12i 

Artificial mothers' milk 101 

Babcock test 1(« 

Barn loO 

Bacteria -•'' 

Bacteria, number of oO 

Bacteria, motion of -<> 

Bottling IL'I 

Bedding 2S 

Boiling point il 

Borax .•?9 

Bulterfat 11 

Buttyrine 13 

Bacterial rennet 'M 

Borden ">l) 

Breeds of cattle 1-18 

Casein 10 

Capril 13 

Capronine. . 13 

Chemicals 39 

Cow 145 

Coagulation 

Cc.iing 102 

Colostral milk !» 

Condensed milk oO 

Cremo metre 12 

Cream separator Ill 

Composition of milk 145 

Curdling 56-lli) 

Cymol 14 

Cuminol 14 

Disinfecting lamp 12S 

Decomposition of milk 33 

Dispora c uicasici 14 

Digestibility of casein 87 

Death rate of infants 84 

Escherich, Prof 00 

Feeding 149 

Feeding roughage 149 

Ferment 118 

Filth in milk 80 

Germs 27 

Globules 11 

Glycerine l:^ 

Glucose 114 

Human milk S() 

Hvdrogen peroxide 42 

Household >terilizer S5 



PAGK 

Kumvs 14 

Kefyr II 

Lactodensimeter 8 

Lactoscope 12 

Lactation Hi 

lyaurine 13 

Lactic acid 01) 

Manufacturing process I2(! 

Maltose ■; 114 

Milk, color of 7 

Milk, hitter 8 

Milk, frozen 44 

Milk, saltv 8 

Milk sugar 13-114 

Milk cistern 19 

Milk solids Hi 

Milking 17 

Normal infants' milk 99 

Normal dairy 13(i 

Organic matter 14 

Olein ■ 13 

Orifice of teat 19 

Ozone 42 

Pa.steur 49 

Pasteurizing 52 

Period of lactation 15 

Palmitine 13 

Pollution of milk 29 

Phosphoric acid 14 

Quevenne 8 

Reaction of milk 8 

Reaction of alkaline 8 

Retention of milk 21 

Salt 40 

Salicylic acid :!!) 

Sacharomyces 14 

Second grade milk 120 

Souring of milk 33 

Sodium 14 

Soda 37 

Soda, bicarbonate 42 

Separator Ill 

Specific gravity- 8 

Spores ' 04 

Straining 7.4 

Stripping '20 

Stearine 13 

Sterilizing (l3-r23 

Tvmol U 

Thermostat 74 

Water bath (17 



INTRODUCTION. 



TT has al\va\s been the imestit^ations of science that 
have graded the path on which practice has fol- 
lowed, bnt too often slngoishly after a long-er of 
shorter time ; it has been the same in regard to the 
production of a rational nourishment for infants. 
Here science has recorded singular successes on the 
different fields that must contribute to the attainment 
of a desirable product, but practical execution has 
been slow to follow the lead. 

Statistics have forced upon us the conviction that 
the mortality of infants artificialh" noi:rished is so 
much greater than that of those nourished in the 
natural way — on the breast, and that whatever dif- 
ference there may exist in the causes of deterioration 
in the various levels of human societ\- women li\-e in 
amongst civilized nations, the fact is uniformly estab- 
lished that the development of the milk glands in 
the female breast is steadilv decreasing. 

Cow's milk will, for general purposes, ever be re- 
garded as the l^est substitute for mother's milk. Natu- 
ral science has done much to impart the knowledge 
of the influence of feed on the j^roductipn of milk, 
and engineering has, b\- the in\-ention of improved 
machinery, perfectly revolutionized dairy technics, 
while the production of a healthy infants' milk lias 



(i Introdiictio)!. 

encountered its greatest difficulty in the conservatism 
of the farmer, who is slow to adopt advice or change 
his methods. 

The production of normal infants' milk is a field 
of work that stretches over so many industries and 
sciences that a thorough mastering of them can im- 
possibly be expected of the dairyman who would 
undertake the manufacture of " normal infants' food," 
but a familiarity with the scientific principles of all 
and every operation comprised in the manufacture 
should most decidedly form a fundamental part of his 
stock in trade. Referring to this sentiment, I will 
beo- my readers kindly to bear in mind that I am a 
farmer writing for farmers. 

I have to thank Dr. H. Weigmann, of Kiel, for the 
permission kindly granted to translate from his excel- 
lent work the bacteriological part of this treati.se, 
which I herewith recommend to the indulgence of all 
those who are, and also of those who should be, in- 
terested in the amelioration of the conditions for pro- 
ducing a healthy food for infants. 

James Fr?:d. Sarg. 
Black Forest Fa nil, J 'a., 
October of iSg6. 



CHAPTER I. 

Those organs whose secretions we give the name of 
milk are called milk glands and their aggregate form 
in the cow, including the skin that covers them, the 
udder. 

These glands do not, by nature, come into activity 
until a short time before parturition and during a 
variously protracted period after this act. The first 
secretion in the udder caused by a heightened afflu- 
ence of blood to all generative organs after conception, 
is noticeable about the middle of the period of gesta- 
tion ; the teats of the heifer will at this time, when 
stripped, render a small drop of viscuous transparent 
gum, which when ocurring may be accepted as the 
first visible sign of pregnancy. This sign does, how- 
ever, not repeat in the cow^. Differing from other 
animal secretions milk is opaque and, when healthy, 
of a white color. Other hues of color with exception 
of the first or colostral milk, which is of a yellowush 
tint, indicate rapidly decomposing milk or the pres- 
ence of bacteria ; some few intensely colored vegetable 
foods are also able to give a coloring to the milk. 
The agreeable sweetish taste of normal milk may be 
changed by the influence of food or by diseases of the 
udder. An inflammation ascribed to the action of a 



8 A AVec Dairx Iiidusti-y. 

bacterium of the streptococcus species produces a salt\' 
taste in the milk which at such time is also slim\-. 

Bitter milk is uot iufrcquently noticed in cows with 
a protracted lactation — but may be an effect of food 
given ; it has been noticed, for instance, after feeding- 
large quantities of young clover and alwavs indicates 
the presence of micro-organisms. 

The smell of freshly drawn milk is faintly like that 
of the skin of the animal and is probably pro- 
duced b)- the presence of etheric acids of fat. 

The reaction of milk is generalh' ''ampho- 
tere," which means to sa}- that it will turn 
blue litmus paper red and also turn red litmus 
paper blue, a condition based on the simul- 
taneous presence of neutral and also of acid 
alkaline phosphates and calcium casei nates ; 
one of these predominating turns the re- 
action to that side. Boiled milk acquires an 
intensified alkaline reaction. The boiling- 
point of milk is about 1° F. higher than that 
of water, and its freezing point is 1° below 
that of water. 

The specific gravit)- of milk, dependant on 
its temperature, \'aries with the relative quan- 
tities of its composing elements : water, butter- 
n, . , ^ fat and solids. Instruments have been in- 

Plain Lacto- 

densimeter. ygnted to ascertain the specific gravit}', for 
instance, the lactodensimeter of (xuex-enne and Soxh- 
let. By the aid of the specific gravity, with a known 
amount of fat, the solids may be calculated. These 




Milk and Milki'ig. {> 

instninients are \'alua1)le as a means to detect watered 
■or skiiiimed milk. The specific weight of milk 
ranges from 1.027 to 1.0:')"). Colostra] milk at 00° 
F. 1.0."ir); -i:im milk, 1.0:'>l> to 1.0:57; cream, 
on an a\-erage, 1. 010. 

Amongst the chemical ingredients of milk 
■\ve find all the principles of nonrishment : 
proteids, fats, carbolndrates, salts and water. 
Amongst the albnminoids in the milk casein 
predominates. It is accepted as probable by 
some that the casein in cow's milk is 
identical- with that in hnman milk, although 
Ave note that the casein in woman's milk, 
when coagnlated by the action of rennet, 
is by far more fine-flaked and jellyfied than 
that from cow's milk, which latter forms 
into compact solid flakes. The dilTerence of 
coagulating is probabh- due to the different 
quantity in which salts are present in the two 
milks ; but this distinctive difference in coag- 
ulating, we must bear in mind, constitutes one 
■of the principal deficiencies when we come to 
look at cow's milk as a suljstitnte for mother's 
milk. This is of such salient importance in 
the transformation of cow's milk into artificial Lactodens- 
motlicr's milk, that the closest study of the Smome- 

ter 

vanoiis investigations carried on at the present 
time on this line must be recommended to all that 
would undertake the manufacture of normal infants' 
milk. Cow's milk and human milk differ with re- 



10 A Neiu Dairy Industry. 

spect to the curdling of the casein, the content of" 
salts, the absolute content of nutrients and the rela- 
tion of the various constituents. The nature of the 
coagulated casein in the stomach depends upon the 
casein solution, the content of soluble calcium salts 
and the acidity of the solution. Cow's milk is in 
these three respects unfavorable to the best coagula- 
tion, for it contains twice as much casein, six times as- 
much lime and js three times as acid as human milk, 
while this latter contains but one-third as much of 
acid phosphates as cow's milk. 

Casein forms three chemical compounds with cal- 
cium or sodium — dependent on the predominant re- 
action — the mono, di and tri-calcic (or sodic) casein. 
Only the dicalcic or disodic casein compounds are 
curdled by rennet in the presence of water soluble 
lime salts, and the completeness of the curdling de- 
pends on the amount of lime salts ; we may, there- 
fore, attribute the compactness of the casein curdling 
in cow's milk to an increased alkalinity. The studies 
of Bcchauip show that casein is not a soluble sub- 
stance which may be coagulated by acids, but that it 
is an insoluble substance forming soluble compounds, 
caseinates, with alkalies and lime, and that the in- 
soluble casein ma}- be precipitated from these com- 
pounds b}- acids which combine with the bases of 
caseinates. The change in the casein by the action 
of rennet has no connection v.-ith the reaction. W'e 
shall see later what effect heating produces on the di- 
gestability of casein and on the milk proteids in general.. 



Milk and Milking: II 

Further albmiiinoids of milk, but of secondary im- 
portance, are lactoi^lobnlin, lactalbiimen and peptone, 
the nutritive value of which is, however, considerably 
impaired by boiling the milk, by which a greater part 
is changed to hemialbuminose. 

Following the albuminoids, the different fats in 
milk merit our attention ; we designate them collec- 
tively as butter-fats, and find them suspended in the 
milk in emulsive condition, that is, glol)ules of the 
minutest size ; these globules, coated with casein, give 
the white color to milk. The size and number of 
globules is variable in one and the same animal, being- 
affected by the advance of lactation, change of feed 
and by sickness. With the advance of lactation, the 
number of large globules diminishes and that of the 
small globules increases ; with the change from dry 
feed to green feed in the spring, there is an increa.se 
in the proportion and the number of the large globules. 
Disea.se or sickness and the use of cows for draft, 
when not accustomed to it, has a marked effect in 
diminishing the number and size of globules. Suc- 
culent food decreases the size and increases the num- 
ber of globules ; oats, bran and linseed meal increase 
their size. Age is apparently without effect. Morn- 
ing's milk has larger globules than evening's milk. 
The first part of the milking has fewer and smaller 
globules, than the last. 

Butter-fat is liquid at from S")° to 105° F., when 
cooled below ()0° it becomes of a crumbly consistency ; 
notwithstandino- milk mav be cooled to 32° without the 



1-2 



A A^Cii' Dairy Iiidiisti- 



siisj^ended fats becoming- hard, oiil)- below o2° or by 
mechanical agitation the form of the globules is lost, 
they become solid and their contour rugged. 

On standing, the globules rise to the surface by vir- 
tue of their minor specific weight and they 
form the cream, while the milk beneath it is 
termed skim milk, which, however, is not 
cntirel)' free of fat, because the minutest 
of the fat globules find it impossible to push 
through the \iscuous milkfluid to reach the 
top. Warmth favors the ascending of the 
globules, cold retards it, but we avoid the 
warmth because it inxohes a rapid decom- 
position of the milk. A large number of in- 
struments have been in\-ented for the pur- 
pose of ascertaining the quantity of fats ; 
some of them aim to accurately measure the 
Cremometer. q^^autity of crcaui raised in twenty-four 
hours and are called cremometers, others purport to 
ascertain the percentage of fats b>- diluting milk wnth 
Avater and making it translucent until a certain mark 
on the instrument is visible ; these are termed lacto- 
scoi^es. By far more exact and scientifically correct 
is the method of SoxJiIct, who ascertains the specific 
weight of fat in the milk ; his apparatus is, however, 
too comj^licated to be of much use outside of the 
chemist's laborator\'. 

The method that gi\'es the best results for practical 
working of the dairy industry is the one that dissolves 
the casein bv an excess of acid under the influence of 



Milk and Milking 



13 



heat and rotator>- motion. The best known in this 
conntry of this class is the Babcock tester, the nse of 
which I shall describe fnrther on. 




TEST SET FOR CREAM. 

We need not go into the detail of the different fats 
or fat acids composing the bntter-fat, such as bntt- 
yrine, capronine, capryl, lanrine, myristine, palmitine, 
stearine, aracliine, olein and glycerine acid, fnrther 
than to remember that it is the varying amonnt of 
these fat acids contained in the feed we give the cow 
that prodnce the varying degree of either firmness or 
grease-like consistency in the bntter. 

The color of bntter also is largely dependent on 
the relative predominating of one or more of the 
above-named fatty acids. 

Another characteristic ingredient of milk is milk 
sngar. Under the inflnence of different ferments, 
among which principally the baccillns acidi lactici is 
noted, milk sugar is transformed into milk acid. 



14 A A^e7(' Dairy Industry. 

Milk sugar is soiiietiiues attacked b)- a rosar\ -formed 
species of a coccus, engeuderiug a slimy fermentation, 
which results in what we know as slimy or long milk, 
which is generally unfit for the extraction of butter, 
l3ecause the minute fat globules are unable to rise in 
this viscuous fluid and form the cream. 

In connection with these ferments, it may be men- 
tioned that some of them, like the Sacharom}-ces 
cerevesise and the Dispora caucasica, are used to bring 
milk to an alcoholic fermentation, in wliich state it 
possesses intoxicating properties, and by reason of these 
is valued as a beverage and largely consumed by 
various tribes of Turkestan and Circassia under the 
name of Kumys and Kefyr. 

Other organic matter contained in milk is a minute 
quantity of citric acid, a number of aromatics, like 
anisol, cuminol, cymol, tymol, in fact, all such as are 
found in the food of herbivorous animals and traces 
of fibrin. 

( )f anorganic or mineral matter, it is principally 
sodium and phosph.oric acid that merit attention, as 
we know that cows with protracted periods of lacta- 
tion are deficient in these ingredients. When we, 
therefore, consider that a healthy and normal formation 
of bone in a child is in great manner dependent on 
the unstinted assimilation of phosphoric acid in its 
milk, we see the justice of refusing the milk of such 
animals whenever the manufacture of infants' milk is 
aimed at. 

Quantity and quality of milk are, as we may sup- 



Milk and Milking. 15 

pose, greatly influenced by the quality of food, the 
management of the feeding; and the breed and iudi- 
vidnality of the animal. 

Medicinal qualities contained in the food or pasture 
eaten b}' the cows may reappear in the milk and 
trouble the consumer ; for instance, the feeding- of 
cabbage leaves to cows produces flatulence \\ 
and pains in most infants which consume 
such milk ; also the acidit)' of feed like that 
in wet and acid brewers' grains passes into 
the milk and makes it unfit for infants' food. 
Increased feeding of albuminoids favors an in- 
creased production of fat in the milk, while 
a feeding with a preponderance of carboh)-- 
drates is followed by a loss of albumen and 
fat in the milk. The quantity of milk is in- 
fluenced also by the periods of lactation ; im- 
mediateh- after parturition it is at its height, 
and from that time decreases generally, not 
gradually but in about three well defined peri- 
ods the duration of which is naturallv depend- „ • ^i, 

^ Dairy Ther- 

ent on the entire duration of lactation, which, '"'""st^'^- 
as we all know, is exceedingly variable, both as to ever\' 
separate animal as also in the several lactations of 
one and the same animal. A lengthened period of 
lactation is acquired by heredity and confirmed by 
judicious management at the hands of the milker. 

Concerning the qualitative changes of milk during 
the period of lactation, there is no harmony of opin- 
ion prevailing, yet a majority of in\estigators claim 



IC) A ^\'('7(' Dairy Industry. 

that towards the end of the lactation the percentage 
of solids and of fats grows. With reference to the 
time of da\' at which it is drawn, it is generalh' con- 
ceded that in barn feeding the quantity of morning's 
milk is larger than that of the evening's milk, but 
that the latter is richer. 

Spa}'ing, the removal of the cow's ovaries by a sur- 
gical operation, has the effect to prolong the period 
of lactation, in some instances which are on record 
for a time of three }ears running, and upward. The 
length -of the period of lactation is one of the most 
importiint factors in judging the \-alue of a cow, but 
for ob^-ious reasons castration should only be executed 
on such animals as by nature are arriving at the close 
of their remunerative career or of their generative 
functions. 

From the foreg"oing we should receive the impres- 
sion that the udder of the cow is a \-aluable mathine, 
one whose handling should l)e thoroughl\' understood 
In- evers- person — male or female — called- upon to 
work it. Where is the wisdom of s]3en ding a large 
sum of money on a superior cow if her udder is to be 
IharrdTecl ?)y an ignorant and careless milker? In 
ever}' other trade we expect from the workman, 
and even from the apprentice, an exact knowledge 
and familiarity with the tools he uses and with the 
processes embraced in the application of his trade. 
The- average farmer or dairyman, howe\-er, seems to 
be ail exception to this rule, if we may judge b}' the 
kick of knowledge he possesses as to the physical 



Milk cDui Mil kino. IJ 

iiuike-iip of the cow. Drawintr the milk from a cow 
seems an operation of such absohite simplicit)" to tlie 
mind of many that nothing can be said about it more 
than tliey already know, and yet an ignorant milker 
is apt to spoil the best cow in a short time. 

Milking is generalh- done on the right side of the 
cow. The milker sits on a low stool which in differ- 
ent localities has one, two, three or four legs, the 
milk pail pressed and held firmly between his knee^, 
his head inclined against the paunch of the cow. The 
cow's tail nia\' be secured by some device and pre- 
vented from striking the milker's head, but imless 
flies are very bad it should be left loose. The milker's 
hands should be scrupulously clean. Whether the 
milker's hands should be wet or dry is an open ques- 
tion, as both methods are quite extensively practiced. 
Milking with a dry and dirty hand is, perhaps, a 
cleanlier operation than milking with a wet and dirty 
hand. We have the painful con\-iction that a greater 
number of cows are milked with dirtv hands than 
with clean hands and it ma\' be, therefore, safer to 
ad\-ocate the use of the dry hand. 
Hov%-ever, when milk is drawn with 
intention to manufacture it into in- 
fants' food, and the necessary precau- 
tionary measures for cleanliness are 
strictlv obser\-ed, milkino- with the w'et 

Milk Pail and Strainer. ' . ' "^ , 

hand ( that is to sa>', putting a few drops 
of milk in each hand) ma)- be adopted with consider- 
able advantage to the animal, becau.se the operation 




IS A New Dairy Industry. 

is then not so irritating to the su]:)cntaneons nerves of 
the teat and iidder. Then, too, a sore and brnised 
teat may by the wet hand be milked withont pain to 
the cow, while the dry hand may prodnce restlessness. 
Lasth', it may be claimed that the wet hand comes 
closer in imitating the fnnction which nature ex- 
pected the teat to be used for — tlie sucking- b)' the 
calf's mouth. 

A method which finds its place between the two 
just mentioned, and which is extensively practiced in 
Switzerland and Southern Germany, is to milk with 
the dry hand, but to apply a small cjuantit}' of pure 
lard about the size of a large pea — to the fingers and 
thumb — the application to be repeated with each cow 
milked. The lard is carried around in a small metal 
cup fastened to or around the leg of the milk-stool. 

The milker should grasp one front teat and one 
back teat of opposite sides of the udder so that the 
emptying of the two halves of the udder proceed 
simultaneously. Owing to the position of the milker's 
head, the milking cannot be followed with the eyes, 
therefore he must be guided by the touch and hearing ; 
for this reason all loud conversation or other vocifera- 
tion should be interdicted during milking time, be- 
cause this gives occasion to interrupt the milking. 
Apart from the loss of time, the interruptions are not 
good for the cow because they multiply the nervous 
irritation, causing the animal to become restless, which 
should be avoided. Many of the best milkers are 
accustomed to hum a tune while milking, and this is 



Milk and Milking. li) 

an excellent practice, as it has a plainly apparent 
soothing effect on the cow. 

To learn to milk well it should be practiced slowly, 
because both hands must become equally expert ; the 
pressure of the hand on the teat must be applied in 
reoular alternation, so that when one hand closes 
around the teat the other hand opens, and the flow of 
milk into the pail is continuous ; an experienced ear 
can detect at once if a milker works well. 

The full hand should grasp the teat as high up to- 
wards the udder as possible, then the thumb and in- 
dex close tightly around the teat so as to shut off the 
milk contained in the teat from retreating into the 
milk cistern when the pressure on the teat is applied. 
Then the other fingers, one by one from the index 
downward, close around the teat in rapid succession 
and press out the milk. The amount of pressure re- 
quired to press the teat depends on the more or less 
developed muscles that encircle the orifice of the teat 
for the purpose of retaining the milk, which would, 
without this provision, flow to the ground as fast as 
produced. Cows in which these muscles are strongly 
developed are called hard milkers. As soon as the 
milk has been pressed from the teat, the hand eases 
up, and immediately the milk from the cistern rushes 
into the teat, filling it again ; the pressure of the hand 
and fingers is repeated until the firstly grasped pair of 
teats do no longer give a full flow, whereupon both 
hands change to the two remaining teats. During 
the rest now given to the first milked pair of teats, 



20 A A^^'ci' Dairy Industry. 

the milk has time to collect from the remotest cells 
of the glands and fill the milk cistern anew. This 
changing of hands to alternate pairs of teats is re- 
peated as long as milk will come, and shonld be con- 
tinned withont interrnption. The more rapid and the 
more symetrical the work can be performed, the l^etter 
the cow will allow' herself to be milked, the more and 
the richer milk she will give. The npward motion 
of the hand at every repeated closing ronnd the teat 
prodnces a kneading motion on the ndder, which is of 
great importance to keep the milk in the cistern in 
commotion. When the flow of milk seems to have 
been exhansted b}' the milking, then each teat is 
taken between the thnmb and index finger and 
"stripped" downward. This shonld be done merely 
to insnre an absolntely thorongh removal of all milk 
from the udder, and shonld never be resorted to when 
the udder is filled, because it is apt to spoil the udder. 
Careless removing of all milk from the udder will re- 
sult in serious damage, because it has, aside from the 
loss of the milk, a deleterious influence on the glands, 
tending to interrupt the productive action in the 
minute cells where the milk is formed. An extended 
period of lactation has been bred into cows, and we 
should tr\' to confirm this habit by milking the heifer 
after her first calf as long as possible, even if the 
quantity of milk gi\-en is, in time, only a small one, 
because, allowing her to dry off too soon before her 
second calf, this habit of drying up is soon confirmed. 
jMilkinof is a tirinof task and not too manv cows 



Milk and Milkiiio. 21 

should be apportioned to the milker, because a tired 
milker does not do good work, particularly as some 
cows are diflficult to milk ; some have an uncommonh' 
small orifice in the teat, some have strong closing 
mnscles ; others, again, stri\-e to retain the milk en- 
tirel}-. This may happen in consequence of the cow 
feeling pain from the milking as, for instance, in sore 
teats, or she may be afraid of ill treatment, or try to 
retain the milk for her calf. To find an explanation 
for this x'oluntary retention of the milk we must go 
into the anatomy of the udder. We ha\'e already 
mentioned the muscles closing the orifice of the teat, 
we .shall now see that a large quantity of blood is 
brought from the heart to the udder in strong arter- 
ies, which, branching out into the minutest vessels, 
spread through the entire milk glands, enveloping 
the minutest cells and engendering their action of 
producing milk, and that this ])lood is led back again 
to the heart by an equally complicated system of 
veins that are spread over the entire inner surface of 
the udder, even down to the point of the teat envelop- 
ing the entire tube or duct of the teat with a network 
of veins. If the cow now retains her breath she pro- 
duces a check on the flow of blood which tries to- 
return to the heart, and, in consequence, the veins in 
the udder become swollen and therefore help to close 
the orifice and duct ; if she manages to repeat this 
retention of breath — in short repetitions — .she is able 
to su.spend the flow of milk entirely. The remedy 
for this bad habit is either to eive some mash or 



22 A Nc7c Dairy Industry. 

drink which the cow likes, or to fasten a bnnch of 
straw in her mouth ; or, what is nearly always the 
most effective, to treat her with quietness and 
patience, at the same time milking persistently. If 
another person is present to stroke along the under 
part of the cow's neck she will give up the retention 
of breath at once. When a cow retains her milk on 
.account of pain as, for instance, with chapped teats 
which frequently occurs during first spring pasture, a 
remedy is only found l)y kind treatment and milking 
rapidly with a soft hand. Such teats shoidd be care- 
fully dried after each milking and an ointment 
applied. Whenever the milker has any reason to 
suspect any derangement of the cow he should taste 
the milk from every teat and look at its color ; any 
carelessness in this respect may result in spoiling the 
milk from the whole stable. As a rule, milking 
should be performed only morning and evening, 
making the intervening time as equal as possible. 

As to the advisibility of feeding during milking 
time there are many reasons against its being adopted. 
When cows are once used to being milked before 
feeding they are much quieter and the business is 
concluded much more rapidly ; but there are other 
reasons of importance, as we shall see later, for not 
feeding during milking time, particularly for not giv- 
ing any dry roughage. 

The dexterous strong hand will always be the best 
milking machine ; only in case of disease the milking 
tube should be made use of and no other milkino- 



Milk and Milking. %\ 

machine of any kind shonld be applied. One of the 
most essential requisites during the times of rest for 
the milk cow is absolute quiet, cruarding her against 
fright and preventing worr3'ing or violent exertion. 
A great deal has been said and written about the neces- 
sity of giving cows daily exercise in the open air, and 
though nothing is to be said against pasturing in fine 
weather, it is certain that in very hot or in cold and wet 
weather the stable or barn is the only proper place to 
keep the cow in. Every exertion, therefore also that ne- 
cessarily combined with locomotion, is an expenditure 
of force, a wear on the muscle, and this wear must be 
replenished bv an extra amount of feed, the quantity of 
Avhich will be found in exact relation with the dis- 
tance that has to be traveled over and the time con- 
sumed by the animal until it has been able to graze a 
sufficiency for its needs. It is easy to see that a cow 
which is enabled to eat all she requires in one hour's 
time and can then lie down, in perfect rest, to ru- 
minate and digest, is in an eminently better position 
to turn her food into milk than the cow that has to 
walk about, for three or four hours at a time, grazing 
before the feeling of hunger leaves her. Nothing 
should, however, be more strongly condemned than 
the practice of leaving cows in the open air during 
midday in hot Summer weather. Not only does the 
intense heat of the sun tend to harden the skin, con- 
tracting the pores, and thereby diminishing the gen- 
eral vitality of the animal, but also the constant 
irritation produced by flies and like insects has a 



24 .^ \('7i' Dairy Iiiditstry. 

notable and injnrions effect on the milk proclnction, 
which will be the more easily noticed the hioher the 
nervons s^•,stem of the cow, as an indix'idnal, or as a 
member of her l^reed, is strnn<4-. Also the sexnal 
fnnctions are often serionsly affected, postponed or 
obliterated by this irritation. 

Having now acqnired a cnrsor\- idea of how milk 
is formed, and how it shonld be drawn, let ns tnrn to 
the influences which tend to spoil it, the methods 
employed to counteract these influences and give milk 
good keeping qualities. 



CHAPTER II. 

Zlbe CDiicjin ot JBacteria in /IIMU^ an^ tbc Con^U 

tions favorable for tbcir BrceMuo 

an^ /ll>ulttplv?ino. 

It is a well known fact that milk undergoes a radi- 
cal clieniical change only a few hours after it has been 
drawn. This chano-e, to our visible conception, con- 
sists in the milk becomino- sour, in other words the 
milk sui^ar has chang-ed to milk acid and, in conse- 
quence of this acidit>-, the casein has been separated 
from its connection with lime and is set free — the 
milk ''curdles." We j^enerally notice only this first 
phase, because in itself it is sufficient to unfit milk 
for further use. A second phase follows in which the 
ca.sein is parti v dis.solved and fermentation .sets in, 
bubbles of t>as formino-, and the process is wound up 
Avith real putrid decomposition and the forming of 
mould. 

In the microscope we po.s.sess an instrument that 
enables us to enter into a study of the composition 
and life of the lowest organisms, and also a means to 
enable us to make and study their culture, through 
which it has been demonstrated that e\-er\- process of 
decomposition of organic matter is due to the action 
of such organisms and that they, somehow, disin- 



26 A Neiv Dairy Industry, 

tegrate the more complicated matter and are able io 
reduce it to the primar}' ingredients of composition. 
When we look at a fluid or other matter in a state 
of decomposition, under the microscope, we notice 
strewn over the entire field a complexity of threads,. 
longer and shorter tubes or cylinders and egg-shaped 
bodies, and going on between all these is seen a slug- 
gish rotatory movement of one or more of the chain 
of cylinders, possibly, too, a worm-like movement of 
the spiral threads. By the means of different cultures. 
we are able to separate the several organisms of 
this intricacy, when we shall find that the spiral 
threads and the small tubes are parts or spores of a 
mould fungus, and the small oval bodies are probably 
ferments, while those that we saw in the most acti\e 
motion belong to a series of organisms which have 
one peculiarity in common — the}' multiply with ex- 
traordinary rapidity by breaking up into pieces and 
every one of these pieces forms a young germ. Ever\- 
liquid, be it of animal or vegetable origin, when ex- 
posed to the air, contains a large number of such 
organisms. Milk is no exception and it contains 
them not only when it commences to turn to visible 
decomposition but immediately after leaving the 
udder, yes, even in the lower part of the udder itself. 
Thus it is easily explained why milk decomposes so 
rapidly after having been drawn. How and by what 
route do these organisms enter milk ? Are they 
already present in the glands of the udder or do the\- 
enter the milk later? These questions can be posi- 



The Origin of Bade ri a in Milk. 27 

tively answered b}' the assertion that the glands of Eif 
healthy cow give off milk absolntely free from sncfi 
organisms. We call such milk sterile. Germs enter, 
manifestly, from the outside and may therefore be 
termed a pollution of the milk. These decomposing, 
oferms are encountered in great abundance where or- 
ganic matter is in the act of disintegrating into its" 
composing elements, and of such decomposing matter 
there is enough around the premises where we draw 
milk — the stable ; there is, in fact, generally more 
than necessary, and this is easily brought into contact 
with the outer cover of the milk glands — the udder.. 
The location of the udder of our domestic animals; 
involves a continual exposure to its being soiled by 
the excrements, urine, dust from the bedding, and' 
even our most scrupulous cleanliness and precaution 
cannot prevent, during milking, a quantity of dirt,, 
particles of straw and fodder, dust, hair and excoria- 
tions from finding their wav into the milk. It may,, 
therefore, be taken for granted that the greater part 
of dirt, and, therefore, the greatest mass of spores, is. 
derived from the udder, as well from the external 
part of it as from the openings in the teats, and evenc 
from the interior milk cisterns. Dairymen know 
well that the first strippings when commencing to- 
milk are by no means favorable for the making of 
cheese, and in many dairies I have found it customary 
to milk the first few strippings into the bedding. 
Many of the germs possess very active motion and 
from a soiled teat find their wav into the interior cL" 



'IS A Nca Dairy Industry. 

ihe chict. Investigation has proven that the first 
milk drawn contains abont fifty to eighty thonsand 
bacteria to a tenth of a cnbic inch, while the next 
following or, we may say, the bnlk of the milking 
contains about five thonsand to the same quantity, 
and only the last quarts drawn are nearl}- or entirely 
free from germs. An immigration of germs by wav 
of the teats cannot be doubted and is the cause, not in- 
frequentl}-, of some forms of inflammation of the udder. 
As we have seen, milk is already polluted at its 
exit from the soiled udder, and again by the dropping 
in of dirt from the external part of the udder, and 
Avhen we consider that dung is nothing more or less 
than the undigested residue of the fodder eaten, filled 
with unutterable numbers of bacteria and spores, we 
rare then able to draw a conclusion as to the direct 
connection existing between the germs found in milk 
and those that must be contained in the food. And, 
in fact, such a connection can be traced all along in 
the milk and more so in the products therefrom, par- 
ticularh- when a change of feed occurs or when fodder 
is fed which is filled with acid or fermenting organ- 
isms, such as wet brewers' and distillers' grains, spoilt 
ensilage, musty hay, mouldy grain, etc. Practical 
-dairymen know perfectly well what evil effect spoilt 
■or l)adly kept fodder of ever}' kind has on the quality 
of the milk and its products. The bedding also on 
which cows lie or stand has an influence on the bac- 
teriological contents of the milk ; it will in a great 
measure depend on the soundness and freshness of the 



The Orioiii of Bacteria in Milk. ±\) 

l)eddin<4- wliich is perhaps spoilt by ha\•in.^■ Ijeen 
housed in l^ad condition and containing spores of 
mould, rust, smut or other fungus growths. The 
cleanest and most unobjectionable bedding in every 
respect is ))ioss peat mot peat moss). A great in- 
fluence is also exercised by the more or less frequent 
changing of the bedding, because any carelessness in 
this respect forces the animals to lie down in the 
]:>utrid and fermenting matter. 

\'ery often milk is still further polluted by the un- 
clean hands of the person milking, b>' insufflcient 
cleansing of utensils which during the entire hand- 
ling of the milk are brought into contact with it, and, 
lastly, b}' the dust suspended in the stable air, being 
parth' dust from the feed and parth' from the bed- 
ding or the floor. We all know that to a certain 
degree this contamination of milk by the above named 
matters and, therefore, also by bacteria, cannot be 
entirely a^■oided and some of these are even absolute!}' 
necessary for the extraction of the products of milk, 
but the above considerations clearly demonstrate as 
does also longtime experience in dairying, that it is 
b\- no means indifferent what degree of pollution is 
attained and to which class more especially the bac- 
terial infection belongs. 

When we recapitulate all that has been hitherto 
said, and consider that all these bacteria possess a 
marked altering and changing influence on the ingre- 
dients of the milk — some slower, others morerapidh-, 
and that thev assist and stinnilate one another in 



30 A N(-a' Dairy Indus fry. 

their mission to decompose, we can easily compre- 
hend how milk that is heavily disseminated with 
bacteria must lose its keeping qnalities and that a 
possibility of infection by bacteria, which is bound 
to produce annoying complications in the milk and 
its products, is by far greater in a stable with chronic 
filthiness than where methodical care is taken to sup- 
press every cause for such infection. 

All of us have repeatedly heard complaints on the 
lack of cleanliness in the stables as practiced by man\- 
farmers ; we meet with these complaints in e\ery 
agricultural journal, in the reports of dairy commis- 
sioners, commissioners of agriculture and presidents 
of creamery associations, but only in Germany have I 
noticed an effort to bring this degree of uncleanliness 
more forcibh- unto our conception by the uncontes- 
table figures of actual weight. Rcuk found, for in- 
stance, an average of 0.01,"i grammes of cowdung in 
every quart of milk sold in the city of Halle, of 
0.000 grammes in ]\Iunicli and of 0.010 grammes in 
Berlin. This gives a total of fifty tons of cowdung 
per annum consumed by the unsuspecting public of 
Berlin. There cannot be the slightest doubt l)Ut 
what the same state of affairs prevails in this country. 
The number of bacteria found in milk gives a fair 
scale to measure the cleanliness by, but this is the 
case only when investigation closely follows the milk- 
ing. Cnopfiowwd. from sixty to one hundred thousand 
germs in one tenth of a cubic inch, and z'ou Frcndrn- 
rcich found from ten to twent\--five thousand. 



The Origin of Bacteria in Milk. 31 

A perfect condition of the milk is not merely de- 
pendent on the cleanliness while drawing it, but also 
on the carefulness with which milk is kept after milk- 
ing. It is easily understood that unclean vessels and 
utensils are able to infect clean milk with bacteria, 
and that an infection with these will unavoidably 
follow if milk is left standing, for any considerable 
time, in the air of the stable impregnated with bac- 
teria. The greatest influence on the number of bac- 
teria is, however, exercised by the temperature to 
which milk is exposed after milking, as the vitality of 
bacteria is greatest at bloodheat and somewhat above 
that. 



The number 


of 


o- 


erms 


will, 


according to IVei^ 


mainly multiply 












a, at 9.5= 


' F. 








(>. at ('.0° F. 


(Bloodheat.) 








(Cellar temperature.) 


After 2 hours 


23 


fold 


. . . 4 fold 


u ■> 


i( 




(iO 


" 


, . . r; " 


" 4 


u 




2ir, 


(( 


, . . S " 


" 5 


u 




1S30 


u 


. . 2(1 " 


" () 


(( 




3.S00 


u 


. . 435 " 



We see from the above that not even the tempera- 
ture of the cellar is able to j^revent these germs from 
propagating, although for the first few hours they are 
considerably restrained from so doing. The preser- 
vation on ice has a far better result — a number of 
observations made were unable to detect any increase 
worth recording. 

It is sufficienth' clear from these numbers thnt 



o2 .1 AVtl' Daii-y Iiiditsli-v. 

temperature exercises an eiioniious influence on the 
propa<^atinf^ powers of bacteria and explains the fact, 
so widely known, that milk which is at once cooled 
after drawing- keeps much lonoer than nncooled milk. 
This influence is so o-reat that even a very cleanly 
drawn but insufficiently cooled milk is apt to contain 
more bacteria and spoil sooner than a filtlu- milk 
very strongly cooled. 



CHAPTER III. 
IDecompositiou ot /IDilk. 

We saw a short while ago that all decomposition of 
oroanic matter is to be attril^iited to the influence and 
activity of bacteria, and when we see that milk, soon 
after liaving been drawn, may contain such enormous 
numbers of bacteria, it is not to be considered strange 
that it should soon spoil. The first noticeable act of 
\itality of these inhabitants of milk is generally the 
souring of the milk, /. c., the transformation of milk 
sugar into milk acid. A considerable number of such 
bacteria are now known which cause this transforma- 
tion, and we know of them further that they have 
onh- this effect and no other. In the course of this 
milk acid fermentation, as we often hear it called, not 
all of the milk sugar is transformed into milk acid 
but only a certain part of it ; in other words, a certain 
amount of milk acid is onh- formed and after its for- 
mation the fermentation or transformation comes to a 
standstill. ' Bacterial life has ceased to make itself 
felt, or, to use the expression of the renowned French 
scientist, Pasteur, " the acid ferment [ fcrDiciit lac- 
tiijiic) has become latent." 

The forming of milk acid is, then, the cause of the- 
casein, the most important of the albuminoids of milk, 
being liberated from its affinity with lime, and the 
milk "curdles.'" This kind of curdling is essentially 



34 A Neiv Dairy Industry. 

different from other forms of curdling of milk, which 
are partially based — similar to the acid curdling — on 
the action of a living ferment, the bacteria ; partially, 
however, their appearance is due to the action of a 
dead or so called chemical ferment. 

The best known curdling is the one accomplished 
by rennet which is a chemical ferment. By this pro- 
cess the casein of the milk is chemically changed, 
inasmuch as it is tran.sformed after separating the 
"wheyprotein," a peptonic matter, into so-called cheese 
or, as we often call this albuminous matter, into para- 
casein. 

This rennet curdling is similiar to another curdling 
of milk, which must be laid to the action of certain 
bacteria and which envolves a simultaneous transfor- 
mation of the casein. Certain bacteria are able to 
cause a ferment to exude, which acts similarly to 
rennet on milk, forcing it, without previous acidulat- 
ing to a rennet-like coagulation ; however, in most 
cases this "bacterial rennet," as we might call it, 
seems to have the effect of again dissolving the 
formed cheesy mass and transforming it into a soluble 
matter — " peptonising the albumen," as the scientist 
would call it. This bacterial ferment, therefore, be- 
haves quite differently from the rennet ferment which 
does not have the dissolving power. It is, however, 
not excluded that these bacteria may, at the same 
time or later, separate a second ferment which posesses 
this very effect to a certain degree. 

Now, raw milk at all times contains such bacteria 



Decomposition oj Milk. ''^^^ 

which tend towards its being curdly, be it either acid 
or rennet cnrdling ; in most cases the acid bacteria 
predominate in nnmbers, or, at least, their activity is 
more readily noted. Aside from this acid-cnrdling, 
and dependant on the proportion of the acid bacteria 
to the rennet bacteria, we find that a rennet cnrdling 
is going on later, simnltaneously or even sooner, and 
which, in most cases, is not noticeable becanse the acid 
curdling has already been completed. Only in the 
case where the number of rennet bacteria predomi- 
nate by far, we see a curdling without previous acidu- 
lating which happens in the "cheesy milk." These 
rennet bacteria — which are also commonly called 
butter acid bacteria, because they generally possess 
the i^roperty of producing butter acid — play an im- 
portant part in the keeping qualities of milk. While 
we find it easy to counteract or retard the milk acid 
fermentation, and thereby the acid curdling, we shall 
see that it is connected with considerable difficulty to 
avoid the rennet curdling by bacteria. 

From the foregoing, the reader should receive the 
impression of the great importance of producing a 
milk containing the smallest possible number of bac- 
teria, as upon this depends the success of manufac- 
turing it into nonnal infants' milk, and, for this same 
reason, it has been found unrecommendable to sepa- 
rate the agricultural part, the production of the cow's 
milk, from the technical part ; the treatment we shall 
describe later on. 

No manufacturer of infants' milk, no matter what 



3() A Xc7C' Dairy Industry. 

name it is sold under, can conscientiously guarantee 
the pureness and healtlifulness of his milk unless he 
has had personal supervision and control of the physi- 
cal condition of the cows, the food they ha\'e eaten 
and the treatment the\" have recei\'ed. 



/ll^ctbo^9 ot iprcsevvinci /lIMlk. 

As we have seen in the fore.^oing, the changes in 
milk, more especially its curdling, are due to the 
action of bacteria (and to some other fungus spores), 
we shall, therefore, succeed in preserving it if we can 
either defer the action of the bacteria or remove them 
entirely. Both methods have been tried for some 
time. Efforts have been made to prevent the im- 
pending souring by adding chemicals, the curdling 
by so-called j^reservalines, and also to counteract, by 
refrigerating, these phases of commencing decompo- 
sition ; but of late all efforts ha\-e been directed to- 
wards killing the bacteria themselves through the 
application of heat, so as to secure in this manner the 
keeping qualities of milk even for a longer period. 



CHAPTER IV. 
preservinci /IIMIF? b^ Cbcmicals. 

I have hesitated for some time to sa\- anything on 
this subject, because the preservation of milk by 
chemicals, even if it were justifiable to practice it, is 
not a procedure that in any manner or form should 
be contemplated by those for whom I write, nor is it 
in any way conducive of better results towards attain- 
ing a milk with keeping qualities sufficiently pro- 
nounced to serve all requirements, as the methods 
which will anon be treated, such as cooling. Pasteur- 
izing and sterilizing, and which are now conceded, 
and justly so, to be the only methods which should 
law^fully be countenanced aiiyivJicfc. Yet when I 
reflect that it is onU' by exposing the misuse of chem- 
icals for preserving milk that a chance will offer 
itself to dwell on the pernicious results which ma}' 
follow, it will be accorded that it may be best to show 
all there is in it. 

Of the many and most frequently used ingredients 
which have been adopted by the smaller retail milk 
dealers, and are still used, to prevent or cover the im- 
pending souring of milk (and often in the erroneous 
supposition of retarding it), none are more generallv 
used than soda. By its admixture it is brought 
about that the milk acid, formed from milk sugar by 
the action of acidulating bacteria, is dulled and, con- 
sequently, not perceptible to the organs of taste. 
During this process the multiplication of germs in 



o8 A Nezc Dairy Industry. ■ 

the milk has not been connteracted or snspended, but 
has, on the contrary, been favored. 

Bacteriology has taught us that an alkaline reac- 
tion is extremely conducive to the welfare of bacteria, 
therefore the addition of this chemical may for several 
hours disguise the acidity, but in no manner will it 
retard the curdling, with which end in view it has 
probably been added. Milk treated with soda and 
kept at a temperature of 80° F. will keep from 
becoming sour for from twelve to twenty-four hours ; 
at 95° F. for from six to ten hours, wdiile the curdl- 
ing, however, has by no means been retarded. 

A simple experiment will show that the curdling 
sets in at about the same time in samples of pure 
milk and in such treated with soda, if kept at the 
same temperature. As the beginning of curdling in 
all pure milk is nearly entirely dependant on the quan- 
tity of milk acid formed therein, it would seem at 
first sight as if this result were contradictory. We 
have, however, seen that the curdling of milk is not 
only enacted by such bacteria, which produce acidity, 
but also as well by a large number of other species of 
bacteria which have the faculty to produce a rennet- 
like ferment. By a low alkaline reaction the propa- 
gation and multiplication of bacteria in milk is 
favored and, therefore, also Iheir effect, so that the 
dulling of the acid is compensated by the more rapid 
development and increased activity of the rennet pro- 
ducing bacteria. For this reason the result of such in- 
vestigations depends largely on the quantity of rennet 



Preserving Milk by CJieniieals. 



30 



producing bacteria contained in the milk. If we now 
try to find ont which bacteria are of the rennet pro- 
ducing kind, we shall see that they are principally 
those that li\'e in the uppermost layers of the soil and 
have been collected with the hay and other fodders, so 
that we may presume that such milk which has taken 
up many bacteria in the stable, or which has been 
strongly polluted after having been drawn, will more 
rapidly advance toward rennet curdling than milk 
which has been less infected. 

Among other ingredients used, presumptively, for 
the preservation of milk are lime, borax, boracic acid 
and salicylic acid. Some of these are even now used 
extensively and have been for many years, for in- 
stance, by the farmers of the North Sea coast, because 
for them it was a matter of existence to kee]3 their 
milk sweet for at least thirty hours to enable it to 
reach their only remunerative market which, to the 
greater number, was London. 

Investigations on the preserving merits of boracic 
acid, common salt and salicylic acid show the follow- 
ing results : 

Adn: 

0.02 per 

0.04 

0.06 

0.02 

0.04 

0.06 

0.02 

0.04 

0.06 

Pure milk 



iixture. 

cent, boracic acid. 


ommencei 
Confirnie 

. . .after 


tieiit of Aciditj 
d by Tasting. 

30 hours. . 
35 " . 
56 " .. 
26 " . 
26 " .. 
26 " .. 
33 " . 
47 " .. 

144 " .. 

25 " . 


Commencement 
of Curdling. 

. .after 47 hours 

. " 47 " 


<. 




.. " 60 " 


salt 




.. " 30 " 
.. " 32 " 


< (( 




.. " 32 " 


" salicylic acid. 




.. " 58 " 
.. "82 " 


11 li 




( was not curdl- 


Ik 




{ ed after 8 days 
. .after 28 hours 



40 -•/ .\7ti' Daii-y Industry. 

Judo-iiicr from the abo\e, table salt can hardly be 
called preserving-, while boracic acid is considerably 
so, and salic\lic acid even more so. With the latter 
it is qnite noticeable that it pre\"ents the cnrdlino- for 
an extremely lonj^- period. 

In regard to the difference of taste prodnced b}- 
these preserxatives, the admixtnre of boracic acid and 
of common salt are hardh' to be detected, bnt that of 
salic\'lic acid x'ery plainly, as it j^i\'es milk a sweetish 
taste. The preservin;^- effects of these admixtnres 
was found lessened in proportion to the time which 
elapsed between milkin^i^' and that of addino" the chem- 
icals, a natural conclusion when we remember how 
rapidh" the o-erms multiply. 

A sample of a "trel)ly concentrated preserving- 
salt," manufactured at vStuttgart, Cjermany, was ascer- 
tained to be com]30sed of salt and boracic acid, and an 
admixture of it in the strength of ().()( )S per cent, 
added to milk had a preserving effect of '1\ hours. 
Soxhlct also inx'estig'ated the ])reserving qualities of 
boracic acid and found that curdling was protracted 
for : 

oo hours by an admixture of 0.1 per cent. 
(;.■; '' '" " 0.1.") 

147 " " '' 0.-! " 

■1?A •' " - 0.4 ^' 

Temperature, as well, has a most important influence, 
and milk with an admixture of boracic acid 
(1 gramme to 1 liter) was kept from curdling for 'M 



Prcscrv/no- Milk hy Chciiiicals. 41 

hours, if kept at a temperature of ()0° F. or l)elo\v, 
aud that eveu half of this quautity of the chemical 
^vas able, at the same temperature, to preserve milk 
for 21 hours louo^er. But the value of a preserviuo- 
cheuiical must not ouly consist in protractino- the 
curdlino- of raw milk, but also in preserving- it in such 
a manner that it will not curdle when being- boiled. 
The curdling at the time of boiling could be pro- 
tracted for : 

10 hours, bv an addition of 0.0.1 per cl. boracic acid. 
:\\\ - ' " " 0.01 " '' 

Yet we should never lose out of sight the prime 
requisite to be demanded from all milk and, therefore, 
also from preserved milk : it should be absolutely 
hcalthv, and this cannot be upheld, even in the face 
of statements made b}' eminent scientists who teach 
the contrar\- and who claim that these perservatives 
are harmless or have no deleterious influence whatso- 
ever. When we reflect for a moment that the public 
bu\-s our milk " bona fide," intending to use a 
great part of it for the nourishment of infants whose 
tender stomach we ma\' compare to a highly tuned 
and sensiti\'e instrument, wdiose cords connect it, as 
it were, with the entire ner\'ous system, the brain, the 
heart, in fact v\ith the aggregate vitality, that for these 
infants e\-en the purest cows' milk is an absolutely unfit 
diet, we should find no hesitation in arriving at the 
conclusion that every tampering with the milk in the 
hands of the farmer or the dairyman, b}" the use of 



42 A Nezv Dairy Iiidustry. 

chemical admixtures, is little short of criminal. For- 
merly great efforts were made to establish the harm- 
lessness of boracic acid, but more recently it has been 
repeatedly proven that it has a deleterious influence 
on the mucous membrane of the intestines, even if 
administered in doses such as we have seen are neces- 
sary to be added to milk ; this acid has been used not 
only in milk, but in a large variety of foodstuffs and 
fluids. Consumers would after some time be troubled 
with salivation, increased urination, diarrhea, loss of 
weight and on several occasions in aged persons — 
death insued. 

From Norway and Sweeden, where the use of 
boracic acid seems to be quite prevalent, more so at 
least than anywhere else, repeated cases of poisoning 
by the comsumption of such " preserved " milk have 
been reported. In other countries the use of this 
acid as a preserving chemical has been entirely con- 
demned. Also in regard to salicylic acid it has been 
established that, even in the minutest doses, its con- 
tinued use is harmful to the entire human organism, 
more especially to the nervous system, and the 
French sanitary authcjrities are wageing a lively war 
against its use as a preserving chemical in the manu- 
facture of canned and bottled foodstuffs. Equally 
obnoxious is the admixture of bicarbonate of soda to 
sour milk, because it has a laxative effect and should 
certainly not be tolerated ; the same may be said of 
benzoate potash, hydrogen peroxide and ozone ; even 
if inoffensive in a j^nre state the trouble here remains 



Preserving Milk by Chemicals. 4)) 

in the fact that they seldom can be procnred in that 
state. 

The final conclnsion reo^arding the use of all these 
chemicals is that milk may be preserved for several 
honrs by nsing them, bnt we also see that the pre- 
serving action of these salts is not considera1)lc, so' 
that not mnch is gained. For this reason their use 
has not become extensive, particularly in cases where 
milk was to be preserved for several days. As a 
whole, their use has up to date, been limited to the 
small milk trade, and all efforts to generalize their 
adoption which are at present made, or may be made 
in the future, should find a timely end by the promul- 
gation, among farmers and dairymen, of more efficient 
and harmless ways of preserving their milk ; I)}- the 
instruction of the consuming public as to the dangers 
of polluted milk, and by the enaction and enforcement 
of laws and ordinances, in all States and communities, 
which shall tend to protect the entire population 
placed under their care from injuries through milk 
polluted by chemical admixtures, and therewith pre- 
vent the lives of millions of infants being left at the 
mercy of unscrupulous greed. 

By far more recommendable than the chemical sub- 
stances are those expedients which strive to impede 
action and multiplication of bacteria through influ- 
ences of temperature, and which have been known 
ever since the most ancient times viz.: the cooling 
and the heating- of milk. 



chaptp:r v. 
preservation bv? Cooliiui. 

From the experiments ])re\"iou.sly noted, it will have 
become clear what influence temperature has on the 
propa<;ation of bacteria, and this influence is so much 
stronger inasmuch as the temperature can be lowered, 
and, naturally, it was not lon^- l)efore attempts were 
made to ascertain the keeping qualities oi frozen milk. 
In some cases this expedient is resorted to where milk 
is to be preserved for long journeys, h. part of the 
milk supply of Paris, France, is brought to town in 
this form, frozen by machinery in vessels with elastic 
sides and then thawed out before consumption. It is 
reported that this milk does not differ either in ap- 
pearance or in taste from fresh milk, and that it can 
be worked into the products of milk with good results. 
Also on board of some of the trans-Atlantic steam- 
.ships frozen milk has been shipped for use for years. 
This milk is first treated in a refrigerator, and then 
frozen. The freezing of milk, however, has one seri- 
ous disadvantage, which consists in the disintegration 
of milk during the freezing process, which, notwith- 
standing the previous refrigerating, consumes several 
hours of time, and, consequently, the cream separates. 

This frozen block consists of skim milk, on which 



Preservation by Coolino. 45 

there is a layer of cream, while in the inicldle of the 
block a fiiiiiiel shaped cavitv is formed, which con- 
tains nnfrozen, bnt very concentrated milk. 

I 'iet/i, of London, has experimented with snch frozen 
milk, and fonnd the qnantit)- of cream S.S per cent. ; 
the .skim milk 04.7 per cent., and the flnid or nnfrozen 
part was 2r).5 per cent. The chemical analysis gave 
the following results : 

Ice or Frozen Part. Unfrozen or 
Cream. Skim Milk. Fluid Part. 

Specific weight . . . . 1.0100 l.O-JT-", 1.0525 

Water 74.44 92.10 .S0.54 

Fat 19.28 O.OS 5.17 

Albnmen 2.04 2. SO 5.38 

Milk sugar o.o.") :').95 7.77 

Ashes 0.52 0.00 I.IS 

We remark that while the disintegrating action 
separates the fat and allows it to freeze b}- itself, the 
other constituents — ashes, milk sugar and albumi- 
noids — remain in about equal proportion to one 
another. But it is this very circumstance, the sepa- 
rate freezing of the milk fat, v.hich is disagreeably 
conspicuous in frozen milk, because the cream does 
not again mix so completeh' after having been thawed 
out, consequently the milk does not present the homo- 
o-enous fluid that there was before it was frozen. 

o 

The analysis of H. D. Riehiuoiui found the frozen 
part to contain 9().2;) per cent, of water and but 1.2:) 
per cent of fat. 

If circumstances do exist under which frozen milk 



4() 



A Nezv Dairy Industry 



may be looked upon as a desirable commodity, or 
which hold out a prospect of widening the circle in 
which fresh milk may be utilized, they must, how- 
ever, not be looked for in connection with the manu- 
facture of infants' food, because it is not merely the 
above mentioned disadvantage of separating the 
cream, but in frozen milk the bacteria are yet alive, 
though dormant, and ready to resume their work of 




ARCTIC COOLER. 

destruction as soon as they are again brought into 
congenial temperature. We must ever bear in mind 
that in the manufacture of milk for infants the keep- 
ing qualities are of value onh- when accompanied by 
absolute freedom from infecting germs of all kinds, 
and that the process of freezing is merely a mechani- 
cal means of stopping the activity of bacteria and in 



Pycseyvatio)i by Cooling. 47 

no way able to correct any physical defect the milk 
may have posessed before the freezing. For these 
reasons the call for frozen milk has ever remained a 
limited one, while the process of merely cooling milk 
is one of the ntmost importance, as we shall later see. 



CHAPTER VI. 
preservation of /IIMII? b^^ If^eatiucj. 

We may suppose that the custom of preserving- 
milk by heating is as old as the cow and the use of 
the fire. The simplest way to accomplish it is the 
©ne in practice in all households over the whole 
world wherever fresh milk is to be had : the boiling 
of it in an open vessel, and its subsequent cooling. 
I\Iilk-boiling pots have been introduced to avoid the 
boiling over and the consequent disagreeable smell 
and loss of milk, but we can not go into a discussion 
foi their merits and failings. The necessity, or the 
wish to preserve milk is, however, not onh' a desider- 
atum for households but by far more urgent for dairies, 
more particularly for such dairies that return the 
skim milk to the patrons, but also for dairies that 
ha\'e milk routes in cities and for the whole milk 
trade in general. 

It is well known to all who are in an\' manner 
connected with or interested in the milk trade, how 
difficult and daint)' an article milk is, on account of 
its easy decomposition, in all cases where it has to be 
brought to town fron.i great distances and from locali- 
ties that could not command the use of refrigerating 
appliances during the transit. One of the first steps 
taken towards attaining greater security was simply 



Prcscrvalioii h\' Ifratiiio. 4^ 

the boiliii}^- of the milk in lar^e kettles, imitatino- the 
process of the households. In this \va}" one could 
well obtain a lon_i;er keeping- quality of the milk of 
from 1 '2 to 24 hours, but there was the disadvantage 
to be contended with that the boiled taste is not liked 
and damages the sale, although it is uniformh' the 
custom to at once boil the milk when bought. This 
is quite a peculiar difficulty encountered everywhere, 
which is, perhaps, accounted for b\- the distrust felt 
towards boiled milk and the preference given to the 
raw article and, perhaps, not without good cause ; on 
the other hand it is positi\-ely a fact that b}- a 
majorit)' of consumers the taste of boiled milk is not 
liked, and it ma\- readily be conceded that the specific 
agreeable taste of unboiled milk is everywhere pre- 
ferred to the former. Besides, it was found that in 
following- the way just mentioned of boiling the milk, 
the addition to its keeping qualities, was entirel}- 
too short to be of au)- considerable benefit even for 
the closer markets, and that not much could l^e 
gained unless the milk could by boiling be preserved 
at least for a couple of days, or, if possible, to gi\-e il 
an undefinite durability. Trials in this direction 
seem to luwe been instituted soon after science had 
instructed us as to the real causes of decomposition of 
foodstuffs, and pointed out the path in which a remedy- 
might be looked for. The pioneers in this line of 
work seem to have been Pasteur and x\ppert, although 
their investig;ations did not lead to a single success, if 
we ma)' judge from the very transient notoriety which 



-50 A New Dairy Industry. 

their " preserved milk," as it was called for some time, 
acquired. 

The next great success iu this work was to fall to 
America, b)- Gail Borden's invention of condensed 
milk, whose innumerable disappointments, however, 
may well be taken as a measure of the difficulties to 
be encountered by ever}- advancement connected with 
the preserv^ation of this, the most necessary of staple 
foods of humanity. And it is, perhaps, as well that 
it should be so. Condensed milk, as it is manufac- 
tured to-day, with and without the addition of sugar, 
is come to stay among us because it has the great ad- 
vantage of being reduced in bulk, of reducing the 
cost of packing, and is a great saving in freight for a 
comparatively large quantity of milk ; besides, it can 
be kept in excellent condition for a very long time. 
The change in taste has, naturally, not been avoidable 
because even the milk condensed, without the addi- 
tion of sugar, has the smell and taste of over-heated 
milk, and a slight reddish hue. 

After establishing this " condensed milk " a num- 
ber of other more or less "condensed" milks appeared 
in the market, but with little success as infants' milk ; 
they have disappeared (with the exception of one 
or two brands) as they could not compete with the 
superior uniformity of excellence in the Borden milk 
and had against them the brownish color of their pro- 
duct. 

Condensed milk is to-day recognized as a boon and 
.a blessing the world over, its production and manu- 



Preservation by I leafing. 51 

facture although highly interesting is, however, an 
industr}- by itself, a description of which we cannot 
here enter into. 

There had, in the conrse of time, been a distinct 
parting on the roads pursued by experiments and in- 
vestigations both purporting to lead to the best method 
of preserving milk by heating. Some advocated a 
short heating at temperatures under 212° F., others 
operated at temperatures o\'er 212°. In course of 
time the first method was called " Pasteurization," in 
honor to the French scientist Pasteur, because this 
celebrated investigator had first adopted the heating of 
fluids, particularly of wine and beer, to 140° F. as a 
means for their preservation. The other method, that 
of applying higher temperatures, was named Steriliza- 
tion, because the milk was, apparently, made sterih\ 
that is to say: the milk was freed from the micro-or- 
ganisms it contained, by which process alone it is 
possible to attain an unlimited keeping quality for the 
milk. 



CHAPTER VII. 
pasteuri3ation. 

In some dairies, as we have seen before, the habit 
of pastenriziiiq^ in common open kettles had been in 
nse. The next step was the heating- of the milk in 
tighth- closed kettles, when an enormous improve- 
ment was at once recorded. The clumsiness of the 
first apparatus and the desire to combine the milk- 
heater with the action of the cream separator were 
the cause of a large number of inventions of different 
ajDparatus which may now be found in a large num- 
ber of dairies. The first of these apparatus dates 
back to 18S:>, when it was patented by Albert Fesca, 
who termed it " a continuously working apparatus for 
the preservation of milk by heat," It would be use- 
less to attempt to describe all these different inven- 
tions, many of which were used for a ver}^ short time, 
and it will suffice to give the principle on which it 
was claimed they performed the preservation of milk. 

An upright cylinder of galvanized copper, and sur- 
rounded by a closely fitting steam-jacket, contained a 
stirring arrangement by which the milk, that entered 
from below and was forced out through the top, was 
kept continuoush' moving so as to avoid its scorching 
at the sides close to the steam-jacket. All these ap- 
paratus, however, had, and have yet, some defects in 



coniinoii : one is the aforesaid burning or scorching' of 
the milk, and another the great insecurity of attaining 
the desired degree of heating for all the milk passed 
through the apparatus. As the injection of the milk 
was continuous it was unavoidable that some part of the 
milk would at times rise and find the exit without 
having attained the prescribed degree of heat. As 
we ma)' suppose all such milk heated to 1().")° or 170° 
acquired the taste of boiled milk, a defect which, it is 
safe to say, has hardly a chance to be overcome. The 
great heat that has to be kept up on the metal sides 
of the copper cylinder containing the milk is one of 
the great defects of all of our present pasteurizing 
machines, and it is certain that this must be remedied 
before pasteurization will become an operation of uni- 
versal practice. After what has now been said there 
would be justice in contending that the present pas- 
teurizing apparatus will be even less successful if 
temperatures of not more than 170° F. can be applied.. 
This will hold good only for the present apparatus ; 
in other words, all these apparatus have a defect, and 
a signal defect at that, which involves the scorching 
before mentioned. This great defect is that the milk 
is heated for too short a time and that it remains 
inside of the apparatus for too limited a duration, 
consequently necessitating a comparatively excessive 
heating at the sides of the milk to attain an enhanced 
keeping quality. 

From this reflection and from the observation that 
the "• boiled '' taste of milk is already noticeable at 



r)4 A Ni'iv Dairy I/idi/s/ry. 

temperatures of 105° to 170° F., it must be con- 
cluded that the application of a temperature under 
170°, but during a more protracted period, must be 
the right thing, and experiments accordingly made 
have confirmed this conclusion. 

We know that all changes which take place in 
milk must be traced to the ■ presence and activit}' of 
spores, ferments, etc. We must conclude herefrom 
that the keeping quality of milk is dependent upon the 
quantity of such germs contained therein, and that 
also the success of pasteurization must depend on the 
efficiency with which it has killed the majority of 
germs or not. If we, therefore, wish to study the ef- 
fect of heating on the durability of milk, we have to 
stud}' the effect which heating ])roduces on the milk 
fungi, and such experiments have to be carried on by 
purely bacteriological methods, which in their sim- 
pler forms we shall have to adopt when testing milk 
to be prepared for infants' food ; a closer description 
of the apparatus used will be brought in the chapter 
treating of the manufacture of artificial mothers' 
milk. 

The defects attached to pasteurizing apj^aratus 
have been clearly demonstrated b}' a large number 
of experiments. It has been proven that certain bac- 
teria which had been introduced into the milk, for 
instance, bacteria of tuberculosis, can be killed at a 
temperature of 154° to 155° if they are only exposed 
to this temperature for about thirty-five minutes. 
From this it was correctlv concluded that other bac- 



Pasteurization. 55 

teria, more especially those commonly contained in 
milk, conld be killed at a temperatnre as low as 17()° 
or even 1()7°, if only they conld be kept in this tem- 
peratnre for a snfficiently protracted period. This 
conclnsion having been reached and confirmed, it 
was at once plain that the apparatns to be nsed wonld 
have to abandon the aim of continnons operation and 
adopt the principle of periodic filling and emptying. 
In his exhanstive researches in this direction, Bitter 
reached most conclnsive resnlts. Beginning again 
with milk to which bacteria of tnbercnlosis were 
added, he heated this in an apparatns of his own in- 
vention to 154° F. for fifteen, twenty and thirty min- 
utes respective!}-, in separate lots. Corroborating not 
only the result of his previous experiments in the 
laboratory, which had shown that thirty minutes 
were sufficient to kill these bacteria exposed to 154°, 
it was found that even half of this ^^eriod, fifteen min- 
utes, sufficed to attain the same result. After this 
the experiments were extended to examine the effects 
of pasteurizing on the ordinary bacteria of milk 
under varying degrees of heat and varying periods of 
exposure to such heat. 

It was of the greatest importance to attain a stand- 
ard of comparison, not only for the preservation of 
the milk, but also as to its fitness for consumption. 
The investigations were, therefore, extended to the ap- 
pearance, smell and taste of the milk treated, and to 
detect every change in these properties on which the 
value of milk as an article of consumption so largely 



f)!) W AvTC Dairy Industry. 

depends. It was equally of importance to establish 
a method to enable an examination of the keeping 
qualities of milk which would manifest the spoilt 
character of the milk even before this should be ex- 
ternally visible. 

Commonly, the keeping quality of milk is judged 
by the earlier or more protracted appearance of curdl- 
ing. But milk is really spoilt before this occurs, as 
the requisites for curdling are all present, so that it 
needs onlv a slight warming to effect the separation. 
The curdling of milk is, however, generally the con- 
sequence of its acidity, and one would believe that 
the reaction of the milk should furnish a measure for 
the expected appearance of curdling. In the case of 
raw milk this measure could, perhaps, be adopted, 
and, in fact, experiments have recently been made to 
determine what must be the degree of acidity to make 
milk curdle at warming ; this will be described later 
on. The method, even if reliable results are to be 
obtained bv it, is one of complicated manipulations 
suited only to laboratory work, and has for this reason 
not received the attention and application it merits as 
a means to examine milk brought to market, which 
in itself is a most desirable investigation. When it, 
however, comes to the manufacture of milk into food 
for infants we can not operate with au)- such uncer- 
tain factors, therefore the degree of acidity in the 
milk to be used for this purpose must needs be ascer- 
tained by the manufacturer ; there must be, absolutely, 



Paslcurization. -"7 

no item in the entire process left to haphazard or to 
chance. 

We have previously seen that, besides the acidity, 
there are other causes for the curdliug of milk, that 
the latter may even curdle without being at all sour, 
and that there exists a large number of bacteria 
which possess the property of separating a rennet- 
like ferment and which, consequently, if they be pre- 
sent in sufficient numbers, are able to make milk 
curdle. VaW in which such bacteria predominate 
Avill curdle \-ery easih- at warming without any ab- 
normal degree of acidit\' having previously been 
observed. The reaction of milk is, therefore, not 
always an unerring sign of probable curdling when 
warmed, but the warming, itself, rather constitutes 
the surest experiment towards the examination of 
milk in this direction, more particularly of such milk 
which is produced under conditions entirely remote 
from our observation. This is also true of pasteur- 
ized milk. All bacteriological investigations of 
pasteurized and sterilized milk have shown that 
it is more especially the group of rennet — or butter 
acid bacteria — which in their endurate form of spores 
resist the influence of heating better than other bac- 
teria. For this reason well pasteurized milk contains, 
when it becomes older, principally these bacteria, and 
it may curdle in the course of time without percept- 
abh' increasing in acidit}'. 

The keeping quality of pasteurized milk can, there- 
fore, not be examined by the chemical reaction, but 



58 A N'eu! Dairy Induslry. 

rather by the direct experiment of curdling : it must 
stand warming without curdling, because on this the 
whole value of the milk, not only for the household 
but also for the manufacture into its products, is 
dependant. It has been established that milk heated 
to 154° and kept there for thirty-five minutes retains 
but very few bacteria, that the pasteurization was as 
complete as can be attained by any heating under 
212° F. The length of time which such pasteurized 
milk keeps was found to be from six to eight hours 
longer than non-pasteurized milk of the same date 
and both kept at a temperature of 80°, at least ten 
hours longer at 77° and from fifty to sixty hours 
longer if kept at 05° F. This enhanced keeping 
qualit)' may also be regarded as constant and not 
varying. The time of heating, namely, thirty-five 
minutes, had been retained because this had been 
found sufficient to kill the bacteria of tuberculosis, 
frequent extraction of samples during the process had 
shown that already after fifteen or twenty minutes 
none had remained alive, so that a duration of heat- 
ing for thirty minutes, consecutively, at 155° can be 
pronounced, under all circumstances, as a thorough 
pasteurization. Further experiments, with a higher 
temperature, were made with skim milk, when it was 
found that 107° kept up for fifteen minutes was en- 
tirely sufficient. 

Here the taste of the milk was hardly altered, 
although the temperature was nearly up to where albu- 
men coao-ulates, and therefore a change in taste could 



Paslciirization. 50 

be expected. It was, therefore, suriiiised that full milk 
would stand heating to 1()7° equally well \\ithout ac- 
quiring the boiled taste, and experiments have con- 
firmed this supposition. The keeping quality of a 
milk pasteurized at 1(57° was enhanced by twenty- 
four to twenty-eight hours if the storing temperature 
w-as 73°, and sixty hours if the temperature of stor- 
age was ()0°, and was also enhanced in the same 
measure as by a pasteurization at 155° lasting thirty 
minutes. 

The investigations of Prof. H. L. Russell, of more 
recent date, have thrown a great deal of light on the 
effect of pasteurizing on the different species of bac- 
teria in milk. Excluding from consideration those 
species that have occurred only sporadically in the 
cultures of bacteria, fifteen different forms in all have 
been isolated from normal milk and cream. Of this 
number, six different forms have predominated in a 
large degree. When classified as to their effect on 
milk they are grouped as follows : 

Species producing lactic acid '^ 

Species causing no apparent change in milk 7 

Species coagulating milk by the production of rennet and 

subsequently digesting the curdled casein 5 

In the same milk, after pasteurizing, only six 
species were isolated. Of these, three had no ap- 
parent action on milk, while the remaining three 
species curdled the milk by the formation of rennet 
and then subsequently digested the same b}- the ac- 



■GO A Ncic Dairy Industry. 

tioii of a tryptic eiiz}"ine. The lactic acid producing 
vSpecies that make up the majority of individual 
germs in the raw material were entirely destroyed by 
the pasteurizing process. This class, as a rule, does 
not form endospores, consequently they are unable to 
resist the heat employed in pasteurizing. 

In the normal milk it is to be noted that while the 
majority of individual germs belong to the lactic 
acid producing class, yet a larger number of species 
producing little or no acid are to be found in milk. 
These are, doubtless, the organisms derived from ex- 
traneous sources. The>' are germs associated with 
dirt and excreta, and gain access to the milk durino- 
the milking. Baccillus mesentericus vulgatus, the 
common potato baccillus, was frequently isolated 
from the pasteurized as well as from the raw milk. 
As these organisms that are thus associated with filth 
of various kinds are able to persist in pasteurized 
milk by virtue of their spores, it emphasizes the well- 
known lesson that scrupulous cleanliness is an abso- 
lute essential in dairies that pasteurize their milk for 
direct consumption. Cleanliness in milking dimin- 
ishes materially the amount of this class of bacteria 
that gains access to the milk. The lactic acid bac- 
teria, those that are essentially milk bacteria by pre- 
diliction, are the forms that are habitually present in 
the milk duct. These are the bacteria that cannot 
well be kept out even by the greatest care. They 
are, however, the forms that succumb most easily to 
the pasteurizing process. 



Pasteurization. <)1 

In reviewing these results it may seem singular 
that the duration of keeping qualities of pasteurized 
milk, particularly at higher temperatures, is not very 
much greater than that of non-pasteurized milk, so 
that the result does not seem to be very encouraging. 
But we must remember that milk is seldom exposed 
to such a temperature as 7:)° in the longest transits. 
Therefore, if properly cooled before transportation 
and the most common precautionary measures are 
observed (such as keeping some ice near the cans or 
using refrigerator cars) results will generally prove 
satisfactorv. It will be readih- comprehended that 
milk will keep so much better after pasteurization 
the more rapidly and strongly it is cooled after heat- 
ing. The larger the transporting vessels are the more 
easily will the temperature be kept down. 

If we now consider all conditions, it may be stated 
with certainty that the keeping quality of properly 
pasteurized milk will be thirty hours, even during the 
hottest summer da>s, and. at lower temperatures, 
naturalh' ever so much longer. A matter of the 
highest importance, aside from the enhanced keeping- 
quality, is that in such milk cream will rise and be- 
come butter just as easily and the butter not have the 
slighest trace of taste to distinguish it from other 
butter made of non-pasteurized milk. Pasteurizer 
and cooler should, naturally, be mounted in a manner 
to avoid as much as possible the exposure of the pa.s- 
teurized milk to the air. Pasteurizing machines find 
the greatest field of utilitv in creameries where skim 



02 A Alezu Dairy Lidustry. 

milk is returned to the patrons, and as they are 
capable, when properly managed, to disinfect the 
skim milk at a trifling cost from the pathogenic — or 
disease-producing bacteria — that is, from those that 
are apt to carry and spread infectious diseases such as, 
for instance, those of tuberculosis, typhus, foot and 
mouth disease, scarlet fever, etc., they should be in 
general us-e. In several European countries — Ger- 
many, for instance — the creameries are obliged b)' law 
to make use of them. When we refer, however, to 
the object of this treatise : the manufacture of milk 
into a healthy food for infants, it must be said that 
the pasteurizing machine does not find an employ- 
ment in this process because a higher standard of 
efficiency must be aimed at, yet it seemed advisable 
to explain the effects of pasteurization so as to be 
able, later on, to define the difference between it and 
sterilizing, and avoid the confusion that in the 
minds of many now exists with reference to these 
processes. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
5terili3iiuj. 

Pasteurizing does not kill all bacteria as we have 
seen, because either the temperature has not been 
high enough, or, as is the case in the connnon appar- 
atus with continuous working, has not acted long 
enough on the milk, partly because the endurate 
forms the spores of certain bacteria can well endure 
temperatures of 212° F., particularly if these are not 
kept up for a longer time. 

Investigations have shown that there exist, com- 
paratively, not a few bacteria that are able to with- 
stand high temperatures ; Co/in^s investigations have 
proved that the hay bacillus (bacillus subtilis) will at 
a temperature of 120° F., at which, ordinarily, other 
organic life commences to die, still increase rapidh-, 
and Miquel found a bacterium in water, which not 
only endures perfectly a temperature of 15S°, but 
prospers in it ; for which reason it was named 
"bacillus termophilus." Now, if bacteria are able to 
resist, even in their vegetative period, the part of their 
lives in which they, apart from a great display of activ- 
ity and multiplication, are keenly susceptible to out- 
ward influences, to such high temperatures which are 
commonly considered as the limit of organic life, or, 
if they ever require such temperatures to deploy their 



64 A A'Civ Dairy Industry. 

full vital energies, how much greater uiust then be 
the possibility that these bacteria will in another, 
their endurate form, be able to resist such higher 
temperatures? We know, in fact, quite a number of 
bacteria whose endurate forms, the spores, are able 
to endure such intensive heat as would at once kill 
all other organic life. The baccillus subtilis has 
been cooked for two hours and a half, consecutively, 
at 212° and not lost its power to germinate, and an- 
other investigator found that this ironclad baccillus 
could be killed only at 240° of heat. Globig iowwdi 
a baccillus living on the potato, the " red jjotato bac- 
cillus," the spores of which could be pronounced dead 
onlv after having remained in steam of 212° for six 
hours, and in steam under pressure at 2o5° the same 
spores were vet alive after forty-five minutes. 

It will, therefore, easily be understood that in a 
process like the pasteurizing, which seldom exceeds 
100° to 17.")°, there very frequently remain live bac- 
teria and spores in milk, wdiich are sure to spoil it 
after a longer or shorter time. The desire, however, 
to give milk keeping qualities, not only for days but 
for weeks and months, is an urgent one, and, there- 
fore, all efforts have been concentrated to destro)' all 
bacteria b}' the application of heat above 212°, and 
thereby to reach the desired keeping quality. Re- 
viewing the observations hitherto enumerated of the 
temperatures at which the spores of several of the 
more resistant kinds of bacteria may be killed, we 
sse that milk which contains, for instance, the wide- 



spread and coiiiinon baccilhis subtilis would have to 
be heated for a considerable time to 240° to insure 
any degree of security of its having- been killed. 

Pasteur records amongst his experiments of steriliz- 
ing milk that the hay baccilhis was found killed only 
after a heating of several hours' duration to 2;)0'' , or 
after heating for half an hour to 260° F. To such 
excessive heat we cannot, however, expose milk with- 
out its palatability being seriously impaired, so that 
sterilizing at such temperatures is practically not to be 
thought of. We note that in the beginning all these 
experiments tended merely to produce a keeping 
quality in the milk, and only in the course of time 
the expedienc}- became apparent of combining with 
it a sanitary amelioration b}' its thorough disinfection. 
We shall first review the effects of sterilizing from 
the standpoint of longer keeping qualities, and turn 
thereafter to the merits attained by the disinfection. 

Among those that entered the occupation of building 
sterilizing apparatus, two distinct methods were very 
soon adopted — the one heating to high temperatures 
and then hermetically sealing the vessels containing 
the milk, the other advocating a repeated heating and 
intermediate cooling at different degrees of tempera- 
ture, which is termed " fractionized sterilization." 
Ty lid all was the first to advocate this method, and 
Dalil adopted it, cooling milk first to ~)~^° and then 
heating it to l.")S° for four consecutive times and 
cooling the milk to 104° between each heating, the 
separate operation consuming one hour and a half 



()() A Nciv Dairy luditsiry. 

each, and after the last cooling another heating- for 
half an hour to 212° was given, and then finally 
cooled to r)0°. This method was, as we readily com- 
prehend, far too tedious to be extensively adopted or 
applied, later on it was modified to but two heatings 
at 158° and the last heating to 212°, so that only 
three heatings in all were given. But even this re- 
duction was not sufficient to bring it into general use, 
also the costs of the repeated manipulations were by 
far too heavy. It was then reduced to but one heat- 
at li)4:°, a subsequent cooling, and then a final heat- 
ing to 215°. The manner of putting this method 
into practical operation was that the milk was filled 
into glass bottles with the porcelain stopper and wire 
closing arrangement. These bottles had been previ- 
ously sterilized in flowing steam of 212*-' for half an 
hour. The rubber rings or washers used with these 
stoppers were boiled in water and soda until every 
particle of taste or smell had vanished ; the rings 
were now drawn over the porcelain stopper by 
scrupulously clean hands, the bottles filled by a bot- 
tling apparatus and placed in the sterilizing chest. 
This chest was fitted with a patent arrangement for 
closing down the wire fastening without opening the 
steam chest (the object being to allow the air in 
the bottle to escape during the boiling of the milk) 
but to seal the bottles hermetically immediately after. 
The temperature produced in the sterilizer by the 
steam is descernable on a thermometer, which is fixed 
in the covering or hood of the chest with the quick- 



Slcriliziuo-. 07 

silver bulb inside in contact with the steam. In 
some of these apjDaratns an electric bell has been 
connected with the thermometer in a manner to close 
the contact and ring when the quicksilver has risen 
to the prescribed degrees of heat ; but as the heating 
has to be done very gradually, or a large number of 
bottles wall crack and burst, the operator's hand is re- 
quired constantly on the steam valve and his eye on 
the thermometer, so that this electrical arrangement 
becomes entirely superfluous. 

The inconvenience of losing bottles and their con- 
tents by bursting was practically overcome by the 
immersion of the bottles in a water bath, and the 
success of this simple expedient seemed to prove a 
lasting one until a singular defect to it appeared, 
which very speedily caused the abandonment of the 
water sterilization as far as it was applied in the pro- 
duction of normal infants' milk. It was found that 
the bottles used in the water sterilization began, in 
the course of time, to loose their brilliancy, their sur- 
face becoming dull and gritty by the action of minute 
particles of lime which were deposited b}' the boiling 
water, and which defied all efforts to remove them by 
mechanical or by chemical means of cleansing. Al- 
though this dullness of the glass did no harm to the 
contents of the bottles, yet it w^as found imj^ossible 
now to control the proper cleansing of the bottles, 
simply because they retain a look of uncleanliness, no 
matter what sum of exertion has been expended on 
their cleansing. 



G8 A Ayti' Daily Industry. 

In sterilizing by steam it is necessary that all air 
be driven ont of the apparatns, becanse a niixtnre of 
air and steam gives very nnsatisfactory resnlts ; the 
apparatus should, therefore, be fitted with an escape 
pipe, through which all air may be driven out and a 
sufficient amount of steam may also continuously es- 
cape during the entire duration of sterilization, so as 
to maintain a circulating movement of the steam in- 
side of the apparatus ; this is essential to equalize the 
temperature in all parts of the apparatus, for, with- 
out such movement of the steam, either the bottles 
nearest to the entrance of the steam will be over- 
heated or those more remote not attain the desired 
degrees of heat. We have seen that a thermometer 
is attached to the hood of the apparatus to indicate 
the heat of the steam as it fills the inside, enabling 
the operator to regulate the flow in such a manner as 
to secure a steady rising of the temperature not ex- 
ceeding ~i° F. in every minute. But the tempera- 
ture of the steam in the apparatus is no indication of 
the temperature of the milk in the bottles to be steri- 
lized, and to know which is of the greatest import- 
ance. For this reason it is necessary to fix a second 
thermometer in the hood of the apparatus, exposing 
the scale of degrees outside, whilst the quicksilver 
bulb reaches down and dips into the milk in one of 
the bottles inside. This bottle, or rather a bottle 
with the neck trimmed off, so as to offer a wider 
mouthed opening for the thermometer bulb to dip 
into, is so fixed on a bracket that the thermometer de- 



S/cr/iiziiio-. ()i) 

sceiidiiio- with the hood or cover will exacth' dip into 
this milk (see Fig. IS), and consequently the read- 
ino- on this thermometer w ill orive a fair indication 
of the degree of heat attained in all the bottles. 
When bottles of different sizes are sterilized simnltan- 
eoush', then one of the largest sized bottles must be 
nsed to hold the thermometer bnlb, for we must take 
account of the prescribed time for sterilizing from 
the time the largest bottles in the aparatus ha\-e 
reached the desired degree of heat. 

Whatever time may have been fixed upon for the 
various periods of sterilization or combinations of 
alternate heating and cooling, the>" should, however, 
be closely adhered to, as e\'ery variance therefrom, or 
negligence in this respect, will at once tell on the 
keeping qualities of the milk. 

Let us, however, bear in mind that all attention 
and neatness during the process of sterilization is 
wasted and futile, if the milk has not been produced 
and handled with the utmost cleanliness, and here, 
again, we may obser\e that it is not so much the 
bacteria floating in the air that have to l^e feared and 
guarded against, than those that cling to matter of 
every description : vessels, utensils, hands, etc. The 
prime object to be attained, after having applied the 
proper sterilizing, is the hermeticall)' sealing of the 
milk bottles before the outer air can come into re- 
newed contact with the contents. In what degree 
this last and most important requisite is attained, de- 
pends naturalh' on the efficiencx" of the closing r.r- 



70 A Attc Dairy Ii/diis/ry. 

rangeiiieut of the bottles, and it was natural that very 
soon a large number of patent devices sprang into ex 
istence, some absolutely without any \-alue, others 
too expensive to find general adoption, and it may be 
safely a\'erred that the ideal sealing for milk bottles 
is yet a thing of the future. The porcelain stopper 
and wire closing arrangement, has grave defects ; 
those that have the wire ends fixed in holes at the 
side of the neck of the bottle can hardly be properly 
cleaned, as colonies of acid bacteria become lodged 
in these holes from where they are not to be got out. 
Manv do not close hermetically, the tension of the 
wires being unequal, stronger on one side than on 
the other ; no acid being admissible in the cleansing 
of these bottles on account of its liabilit}' to corrode 
the wire, they are with difficulty kept clean, the 
wdiole wiie fixture darkens in the course of time, be- 
comes rusty, discolors the neck of the bottles and im- 
parts to them a filtlu', slovenly appearance ; lastly, 
the wire and stopper, hanging to the bottle, are much 
in the way where these bottles are to be used for 
feeding the contents to the infant direct after pulling 
on a feeding nipple. 

The greatest defect, however, adhering to tliese 
bottles, and the one which principally makes them 
imfit to be utilized in the manufacture and dispensing 
of food for infants, is that neither the manufacturer 
nor the buying public are able, by the outward ap- 
pearance of the bottle or fastening, to detect if the 
sLerilizing effect has been complete, or if it even has 



Sterilising. 7 1 

been so at the time of closing the bottles, if it is so 
yet at the time of sale or consumption. A bottle of 
milk with the wire fastening may look all right when 
it comes out of the sterilizing apparatus, but if there 
has existed the slightest inequality of tension in the 
wires, and the stopper sits one-sided, or with the pres- 
sure drawn to one side only, then, when cooling the 
reduction in the volume of milk, produces a suction 
strong enough to draw in some of the outer air into 
the bottle, and with this air, naturally, germs enter. 
As a consequence, such milk is no longer sterile, but 
is likely to turn at an\' time and produce results 
which, while the}' may prove disastrous to the con- 
sumer, are sure to damage the reputation of the man- 
ufacturing dairyman. Several cases of this kind re- 
curring in a -neighborhood are ampl}- sufficient to ruin 
the manufacturer and bring discredit on the article it- 
self. Another porcelain stopper, made b\- TiuipL\ aban- 
doned the wire locking and trusted to the atmospheric 
pressure to do the sealing ; this would work well and 
neatly as long as the top of the bottle was ground to 
a perfectly smooth flange, to which the rubber washer 
would adjust itself snugly, but this bottle did not find 
extensive application — firstly, because it was too ex- 
pensive and, secondly, because during sterilization 
the expanding gasses from the bottle frequently lift 
the stopper and washer, which then do not settle 
down again to their place, so that such bottles have 
to be readjusted and go through the sterilizing pro- 
cess again. 



72 .-1 Ay'7(' Dairy Industry. 

It should be understood that it is the manufactm-er's 
most urgent interest to offer in the market only such 
bottles that will plainly show by an outward and in- 
fallible sign that their contents are in perfect condi- 
tion, and this sign must be one easily recognized so 
that the consuming public will learn to look for the 
recognized mark when l)uying milk. SoxJilct was 
fully conyinced of this necessity, and constructed an 
automatic rubber sealing, which works well enough 
when used only on the small sterilizing apparatus 
constructed for family use, where the l)ottles, after 
sterilizing, can be handled with care, but in produc- 
tion on a larger scale where Iwttles haye to be sent 
long distances and l)e exposed to shaking in cases or 
boxes, the Soxhlet rubber seal is quite unreliable ; 
l^esides, the mouth of the bottle has to be ground into 
a conca\'e, which operation raises the price of the 
bottle to a figure wliich ])laces it outside of considera- 
tion for general adoption. Slutzcr in\-ented another 
automatic sealing stopper, which, although it sits firm 
and works well, is so misshapen as to be most difficult 
to clean, also its price is about three times as high as 
what can be allowed for an automatic sealing deyice. 

The requisites demanded from a bottle to undergo 
sterilization and for holding infants' milk ma\- be 
summed up in the following points : 

The material must be absolutely crystal clear, so that 
imperfect cleansing ma)' be easily detected ; it must 
be free of air bubbles, and, in manufacturing, must be 
very gradually cooled to ])roduce a non-brittle glass. 



S/cri//z'//{<^>'. 7.') 

The l)est color for the 1)Ottle is none at all, bnt li,L;bt 
lines of color nia>- be admitted if reqnired for dis- 
ting-nishino- the different i^-rades of milk. The shape 
shonld be conical and runnintr gradnall}- into the 
neck, avoiding- the bnlg-in^^ ont at the neck common 
to medicine bottles. The inside snrface of the bottom 
shonld be well ronndcd towards the sides, so that no 
sharp fnrrow may exist inside for any sediment to 
stick in. 

Everv bottle with a flaw or bnbble should be re- 
jected, as this will make it burst at sterilizino- ; the 
glass shonld not be too thick or heavy, and no letter- 
ing- of an^• kind should be moulded into the face or 
sides of the bottle, because these raised letters obstruct 
an equal contraction whilst cooling- and thereby cause 
it readilv to burst. The neck of the bottle should 
be of equal width in all sizes used, so that the same 
feeding nipple may be applied to all. The stopper 
must be an automatic sealing one, that is, it must 
allow the air and gas.ses which are driven out by the 
boiling to escape without lifting or moving the stop- 
per, so that as soon as the pressure from the inside 
relaxes the stopper shows sufificient adheasi\-ene.ss to 
close firmlv around the mouth and neck, excluding 
the outer air ; in fact, it must sit on so firmly as to 
exclude all possibility of being shaken or pushed off 
during transportation, but must yet allow of perfectly 
easy removal by hand. Such a stopper can naturally 
not have the shape of a plug, but is a hood or caps 
of the .simplest outline, as seen in Fig. '20, yet afford 



74 A Neza Dairy Industry. 

ing the greatest facility to be turned inside out for 
the purpose of cleansing. The only disadvantage of 
such a stopper as compared with the porcelain and 
wire arrangement is that it is more liable to get lost 
or mislaid. 

After having taken every precaution to make the 
process of sterilizing effective, we naturally evince a 
desire of acquiring a knowledge of the degree in 
which we have been successful, and this desire be- 
comes an absolute necessity when we turn to manu- 
facturing milk into food for infants. 

As by sterilizing, we have given the milk good 
keeping qualities, we may keep the milk stored in a 
cool place until the investigation which we shall have 
to institute is conchided, and shall have shown us just 
how long the milk, which we have sterilized at a cer- 
tain date, will remain pure and sweet if kept at a tem- 
perature of 00° F. or below. 

The apparatus which we make use of (termed a 
thermostat) is an incubator constructed expressly for 
the purpose of hatching bacteria or breeding certain 
of their species ; its outward appearance and constuc- 
tion are shown in cut on opposite page representing 
a machine built by F. Sartorius, in (kjettingen, (rer- 
many, where it is extensively used, and has been 
found entirely reliable. There is a heating chamber 
in the center with glass pannell-clad door which may 
be darkened by prefixing a felt pannelling. Bacteria 
grow more rapidly in the dark. This chamber is 
completely encased by a water chest, \v, the inner snr- 



S/<'/'///c///o'. 7."> 

face being- of corrugated metal sheatliiiig, so as to 
present a larger heating surface. The filling of this 




Fig. 8-THERMOSTAT. 

waterchest is through a small tube, a, with distilled or 
rain water. Enveloping the water chest is a space filled 



7() A iVf-'ec Dairy hidttslry. 

with isolatiiit^' material ; at k we sec the automatic 
regidator, an exceedingly sensitive and ingenions ar- 
rangement, registering changes in the temperature of 
one-fifth of one degree ; t, is the thermometer ; b, d 
and 1, is an arrangement for snppKing moist air to 
the heating chest; o, is the ventilating chimney; c, 
m and s, the heating apparatus, coal oil or benzine 
being used in the lamp. Now, from each days pro- 
duction of sterilized milk we retain two sample bottles, 
and pasting a label on the side of each bottle, record on 
it the date of sterilizing and grade of milk contained in 
the bottle. The bottles are now placed in the heating 
chest of the thermostat and the regulator set to main- 
tain '.).~)°, F., which is the temperature most propitous 
to the propagation and multiplication of bacteria. 
]\Iorning and evening these bottles must be taken 
out, their contents shaken and attentively investi- 
gated as to any change in ,tji^i^' condition. If any 
bacteria or their spores ha\-e escaped the effects of 
sterilization then they will speedily be brought to 
development and their action on the milk noticeable. 
The time, therefore, which milk will keep in un- 
changed condition in this incubator is a fair indication 
of how long such milk will keep in good condition 
when kept at lower temperatures. Milk that will 
keep perfect in this brooder for twenty-four hours is 
likely to keep perfect for one week at ()()°, or l)elow, 
and milk that keeps for eight days in the chest with- 
out curdling will, undoubtedh-, keep good for eight 
\.:2ks if kept in an ordinar}- cellar, and ever so much 



Sfcri/ising. 



i i 



longer when cooled with ice. This testing shonlcl be 
carried through most strennousK- if one would avoid 
disagreeable surprises and serious losses. 

We leave this subject, referring all those merely in- 




Fig. 9-WORKING PARTS OF THERMOSTAT, 

terested in sterilization of milk to the treatise written 
by Alonrad on "Pasteurization and Milk Preservation," 
where a synopsis of such apparatus is given, and to 
the article by E. x\. de Schweinitz in the year book 
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1S'.)4. 



CHAPTER IX. 
TLbc /IDortaliU^ of Knfants. 

Cow\s milk is pure only in the upper part of the 
health)- animal's ndder— the lower parts of the milk, 
principally that contained in the milk cisterns ad- 
joining the teats, are, as has been previously shown, 
more or less polluted by "^erms that have found their 
way through the ducts in the teats. Impure milk 
may be, however, milk physically decomposed by 
distemper in the cow or b}- the admixture of filth, 
dust, hair, scales from the outer skin of the udder, 
germs of lower organisms, or by all these conditions 
combined. Watchfulness as to the sanitary condition 
of the cow and the observation of a scrupulous clean- 
liness in every handling of the milk tend to lessen 
the evil influences just named. It is an easy matter 
for every farmer or dairyman to convince himself, by 
a simple experiment, of the great difference in keep- 
ing qualities that result from improved conditions 
whilst milking. 

Let him enter his stable at a given morning and 
milk three cows into the milk pail he has been using 
all along and without any change of accustomed con- 
ditions ; let him mix this milk and take out a test 
sample for setting ; let him then take the next three 
cows, lead them out into the open air, wash the udder, 
if soiled, with warm water, and dry thoroughh' with 



The Mortality of Infants. 70 

a clean towel, or, if not soiled, rnb gently, but 
thoroughly, with a moist towel, so that all dust, hair 
and scales may cling to it, then wash hands in water 
and soda, dry them, and milk into a new milk pail 
which has previously been well sterilized b}- boiling 
water and soda, and letting the first five strippings 
from every teat run to the ground, then mix the milk 
of these three cows by itself, as of the lot before, and 
place the test sample b\' the side of the first ifi the 
same place of storage, at a temperature of ()()° or less, 
and he will remark that the first sample to " turn " 
will be the one of the stable-milked cows, which will 
take place in about from twenty to twenty-five hours, 
whilst the sample from the second lot, the one pro- 
duced under improved conditions of cleanliness, will 
keep sweet for from ten to fifteen hours longer than 
the first. 

After improving the conditions of milking, we mav 
turn our attention to the straining ; and here, it must 
lie confessed with regret, we find, in general, a sorrv 
condition of affairs. \\\ far too man}- farmers do not 
catch the meaning of the idea to be convened \\heii 
speaking of microscopical minuteness. They belie\'e 
that dirt, to be perceptible, must be \-isible, and the 
double or trebly-folded cloth in the strainer is con- 
sidered quite an extra concession to cleanliness and 
fancifulness ; }et, minute particles of dirt do pass, 
detectable in the aggregate even without the use of 
the microscope as a horrifying mass of filth. 

A very simple experiment ma}" be made tocon\-ince 



»so 



A Aytc Dairy [iidiisti-y. 



as of the quantity of dirt remaining- in tlie average 
sta1)le-strained milk. Take a clean glass vessel, of 
the shape shown at Fig. 24, and containing about one 
gallon of the fresh strained milk, fasten six inches of 
rubber tube over the mouth of the bottle and a small 




Fig. 24-TESTING FILTH IN MILK. 

glass test tube to the other end of the rul)l)er tube, 
turn upside down, place in a suitable rack and let it 
remain standing for twelve hours. The dirt con- 
tained in that milk has now settled down to the 
bottom of the small glass tube ; this is removed by 
tightly closing the rubber tube with thumb and index 



The MortalHv of Infants. SI 

finger, turning the large vessel right side np and pul- 
ling away the rubber tube from its mouth. The 
contents of the smaller tube are now poured over a 
Ijlottiug paper filter from which, after drying, the 
actual amount of dirt in the milk may l)e ascer- 
tained by weight.' In this manner the percentage of 
dirt in the daily milk brought to market was ascer- 
tained for all the laroer cities in Germany, and, as a 
result, figures were published that shocked the public 
and were pronounced incredible exagerations, until a 
leading scientist in dairying technics undertook to 
convince the pul)lic b}' exhil)itiug these dirt accumu- 
lators in operation at fair grounds and at all suital^le 
occasions. 

The majorit}' of milk consumers in cities wheri be- 
stowing a thought on the origin of the milk brought to 
their home by the trim milk wagon, picture the farm 
dairy as a scene of rural bliss and healthful surround- 
ings, where clean glossy cows browsing in the sunshine 
on flowery pastures, or peacefulh' hing down, chewing 
the cud in the shade of lovely trees, have all the care 
and attention their importance merits. 

Against this fair picture, let us hold up realit\' in the 
form of an abstract from the able report of Dr. Howard 
Carter, milk inspector of the cit\- of St. Louis, Mo.^ 
for IS!)."")-'*.)!;, covering 4;)() dairies with *.>,()()(.) cows: 
"The sanitary condition of a majorit}' (of dairies-] 
howexer, is vicious in the extreme, and their presence 
in the thickly populated district should not be toler- 
ated. Deprivation of natural food, light, air, exercise 



82 A Neii' Dairy ludusiry. 

and natural environment can result only in impaired 
health, whether in man or animal. There are 322 
dairies having no pastures, 126 having neither pasture 
nor cow lot, 77 having improper facilities for cooling 
and storing milk, or none at all. The breathing 
space is entirely insufhcient. The majority of dairies 
are badly ventilated and poorly lighted, being more 
or less entirely destitute of sunshine ; in not a few 
there is almost complete and perpetual darkness. In 
some instances the food for the cows is boiled within 
the stables — the atmosphere of which is rendered still 
more oppressive bv the steam and smell arising from 
the boiling mash; these, added to the ammoniacal odor 
of decomposing urine, produce an insufferable atmos- 
phere. Of the milk producing properties of such 
food as brewers' grains and the waste products of dis- 
tilleries and vinegar factories, there appears to be but 
little doubt, yet authorities who have more thoroughly 
investigated the subject assert that the quality of 
milk produced under such feeding is less stable in its 
constituents, the fat more readily broken up into the 
various fatty acids, the casein less soluble and the 
whole product more liable to the various forms of de- 
composition than milk produced from healthy animals 
under natural environments. But the result of such 
a system of stabling and feeding is, however, a per- 
version of the natural appetites and functions of the 
animals subject to them. This is exemplified in the 
refusal of such animals to drink water even in hot 
weather. The continued use of partially fermented 



The Mortality of fiifaiits. 83 

moist food producing an analogous condition to that of 
chronic alcoholism in human beings. Such condi- 
tions inevitably result in diminished vitality and a 
greater susceptability to disease, although our local 
dairymen profess a different opinion. 

''There exists a lamentable and disgraceful disregard 
for the cleanliness of the cows themselves. The ani- 
mals are, for the most part, "confined in stalls and de- 
prived of bedding, standing out their wretched lives 
upon hard board floors ; they lie down in their own 
evacuations, which adhere to the flanks and udders 
in dense masses. Under these conditions the produc- 
tion of a pure milk supply is impossible. Milk thus 
collected unavoidably contains impurities of all kinds, 
consisting chiefly of stable litter, manure, epithelial 
scales from the teats of the cow as well as from the 
hands of the milkers." 

The report goes on to say that about seventy-five 
per cent, of the cows in these dairies were found to 
be affected with tuberculosis, and the doctor urges 
the necessity of bestowing a greater share of public 
and legislative attention than heretofore on this mat- 
ter, being one of vital importance. 

It is simply wonderful what the public will stand 
in the way of filthy milk, as far as this is an estal)- 
lished fact for the various large cities in Germany, and, 
if we may consider the frequent complaints found in 
the various agricultural and dairying periodicals of 
this countrv as an indication in this direction, it must 



84 A Nf2i' Dairy hidusfry. 

be conjectured that the state of things in America is 
hardly better, if not worse. 

According to the most favorable calculations it was 
found that tlie inhabitants of the city of Berlin con- 
sumed, annually, in their milk, no less than one hun- 
dred thousand pounds of cow dung, and the inhabitants 
of the cit\- of New York will consume at least three 
times this amount per year. This is the first point 
to be remedied. When we consider that the new- 
born babe consumes only milk, and that a majorit}' of 
the ailments that are liable to befall it take their 
origin in the stomach, we must come to the conclu- 
sion that impuritN of the milk must frequently be 
the cause. 

The death rate of infants is appaling. On an 
average, twenty per cent, of all children born die 
during the first \ear of their life, and, out of every 
hundred infants that die, eighty at least have been 
fed on cows' milk. But even the healthfulness of 
mothers' milk is entirely dependant on the physical 
condition of the mother. Statistical investigation 
has shown that while of one thousand infants nursed 
by mothers belonging to the wealthy aristocratic 
classes onlv 'u would die ; the mothers of the poorer 
classes would lose '.\~~i out of every thousand of their 
infants in the .same time and period of life, and even 
this terrific loss does not tell the whole story, as large 
numbers of those surviving drag an impaired consti- 
tution through life, owing to the deleterious effects of 
the damaged and poor milk imbibed during infancy. 



'Hw Morlalilv of hi fan Is. So 

But mothers that nurse their own infants have, for 
one reason and another hecome very scarce, so that 
there is not one class of society in which natural 
nursing- is not on a steady decline, and it is not exclu- 
sivelv the aristocrat that shirks this duty or the 
woman that has to gain her livlihood in the factory-, 
hut it is just the same with the population in the 
countrv. I have lived for nine )-ears near a (xernian 
\-illage of over two hundred souls, and, on careful in- 
vestigation, I was unable to hear of one single case 
during that entire period where a mother had given her 
infant the breast. The hiring of the services of a 
wet nurse is beyond the means of most mothers and 
even those that do resort to this expedient generally 
find the nurse the terror of the household. 

Boiled milk is generally considered a proper food 
for infants, and people have thought that to boil milk 
at home and dilute it with water was all that had to 
be done to ensure a faultless article of food for the 
infant. A number of receipes have, in the course of 
time, been brought forward and tried, such as pepton- 
izing the cow casein by the admixture of pancreas 
ferment or the addition of preparations of white of 
egg, not one of these compounds has, however, been 
able to receive the support of medical science, and 
very justly so. Simple, but not always effective, ap- 
paratus — like the SoxJilct — have been invented for 
sterilizing infants' milk at a small cost in ever\- house- 
hold, yet their utility is, in a great measure, de- 
pendent on what the quality and condition of the 



S') .7 \('7C Daily Industry.. 

milk has been before it reached the house. We know 
now positively that all germs contained in fresh milk : 
baccilke, spores and ferments beoin to multiply im- 
mediately after being drawn from the cow with an 
astonishing rapidity, so that milk produced under the 
most favorable conditions may contain millions of 
germs if several hours have elapsed between the 
drawing from the cow and the boiling or sterilizing 
of it. And even if we could remedy this defect by 
keeping a cow in every household, we should not be 
producing an infants' food that could be pronounced a 
fit substitute for the mother's breast, for we must ever 
remember that C(nv\s milk is not n/ot/icr^s niilk.^ and 
that the neze-born babe does not possess the stoma eh of 
a ealf 

Let us look at a comparison of the two milks taken 
from one hundred and fifty analyses : 

Cow's Milk, Woman's Milk. 

Water 87.5 per cent. 88.25 per cent. 

Casein 8.0 " 0.75 " 

Albumen 0.5 " 1.00 

Fat ;5.5 " 3.50 

Milk sugar .... 4-S " 0.25 

Ashes 0.7 " 0.25 



100.0 ^' 100.0 

We remark at a glance the great difference of pro- 
portions in the various constituents of the two milks, 
and when we consider that an infant's stomach is an 
exceeding dainty apparatus, it will be at once clear 



TIk' Moiialitv of Iiifaiifs. S7 

that these differences ma}' be the cause of orave de- 
rangements, and this, in fact, is the case. 

The principal difference, and the one which before 
all others claims correction, is the excess of casein in 
cow's milk in a form not of easy digestion ; further- 
more, the scantness of milk sugar and of albumen. 

Medical authorities do not seem to entirely agree 
on the equality of the chemical composition of the 
casein in cow's milk and in human milk ; we may, 
however, without attempting to express an opinion 
on this matter, fix our attention on the difference in 
digestabilit\- of the two caseins, as this is of prime 
importance in the process of the infant's nourishment. 
If a small quantity of w^oman's milk be taken and a 
few drops of extract of rennet added, in imitation of 
the process inacted in the infant's stomach, it will be 
seen that this milk coagulates in the form of finest 
flakes, looking more like very minute grits, while, if 
we repeat this experiment with cow's milk, we shall 
see the casein formed into large, more or less com- 
pact, lumps. The digesting juices of the infant's 
stomach are able easily to reduce the finely curdled 
casein of mother's milk, but the lumps of the cow 
casein are not easily digested, cause inconvenience, 
and are, as we all have had occasion to observe, fre- 
quently ejected from the infant's stomach. To reduce 
the amount of casein in cow's milk by diluting with 
water is a proceeding adopted by many ; it is not, 
however, a recipe to bring the milk any closer in 
composition to mother's milk, as, by so doing, we re- 



88 .-i Arec Dairy Industry. 

cliice yet further the already deficient percenta.^e of 
milk ,su<>'ar, albiiiiieii and fat, the latter, especialh-, fur- 
nishing' the oreater part of strength in the infant's 
food, and it is exactly this strength which is so im- 
portant a matter to be kept up. 

Our aim in preparing a reliable substitute for the 
mothers' breast, in producing an artificial mothers' 
milk, must then be to convert cow's milk, by an ab- 
solutely harmless proceeding, into a thoroughly 
healtlu' milk, containing exacth' and constantly a 
uniform percentage c)f ingredients closely resembling 
those contained in healthy mothers' milk and to 
change the form of curdling of the casein into the 
one proper to human milk. vSimple as this undertak- 
ing may seem to a mind that has not had an oppor- 
tunity to stud}' the intricacies of the matter, this 
desideratum has been the life aim of man\' a scientist, 
and it is only the last few years that ha\'e brought us 
closer to the attainment of this boon, b\' the labors 
and successes of Prof. Backhaus, (^f (kcttiiigen, of 
Prof, (ia^rtner, of \'ienna, and others, in whose 
methods of converting cow's milk into artificial 
mothers' milk, we now possess admirLil^h' planned 
processes, in which every change and manipulation is 
founded and supported by universally accepted medi- 
cal principles. The satisfaction with which this 
milk has been hailed by the medical men in Europe, 
has created a demand for it beyond all expectations, 
and in a verv short time every city and town will 
possess a dairy manufacturing this artificial mothers' 



The Mortality of fiifants. Si) 

milk, and to judj^e from the inimerous inquiries that 
have been sent from America, and from the hearty 
encouragement I ha\"e received from the medical men 
of this country, it would seem that this article will, 
also here, be gladly hailed, and fill the place of a true 
blessing. It will not be found amiss to append two 
testimonials from German physicians : 

Dr. (med.) Hess, says: "During the epidemic of 
cholera infantum, in the summer of 185'.j, I had the 
opportunity of becoming acquainted with the nutri- 
tive and curative properties of the normal infants' 
milk. I treated eighty-two infants, part of them 
purely medicinalh', and part of them purely dieti- 
cally, another part with combined treatment, accord- 
ing to the age of the infants and the intelligence of 
the parents. On the whole, I am able to record great 
success in all cases where the nursing was properly 
attended to, where the milk was administered accord- 
ing to instructions, and wdiere the infant received the 
milk direct from the bottle. I had eight cases of 
death, two of these were infants that had received the 
normal milk. Out of my eighty-two little patients, 
fifty-lixe were treated with the normal milk alone, 
fifteen received medicines besides, twelve were treated 
Avith medicines only, and of these latter, six died. 
The medicines prescribed were : Kreosot, argent. 
nitric. Colombo and Bism. subnitr, according as con- 
ditions required, also Tokay wine. ]\Iy opinion is, 
that if I were placed before the alternative to com- 
l^at a case of cholera infantum, or of summer diarrhea. 



90 A Nc7C Dairy /udiislry. 

with either the normal infants' milk, or with medi- 
cines, I shonld unhesitatingly try it with the first, be- 
canse I have become convinced of the nselessness of 
the medicines withont regulating the diet." 

Dr. (med.) Marx, says: "During the summer of 
iSHo I experimented with the normal infants' milk 
on a number of sick and of hcallhly infants, reaching 
surprising results. In cases of summer diarrhea and 
cholera infantum, even where the vSoxhlet milk had 
been given without a\'ail, an immediate impro\'eiiient 
followed the taking of the normal milk, \omitint;and 
discharges ceased, giving place to a healtln' digestion. 
In healthy infants, where r;ursing by the mother was 
impossible, and the normal luilk gi\-en, I found an 
average daily increase in weight of 'M) grammes dur- 
ing the first months of life. Cases where the normal 
infants' milk did not agree at all, or even where it 
did not well agree with a.i infant, have not come 
under my observation." 

Professor EschcricJi says : " It is a well known fact 
that, even with the aid of th-^ most perfect hygienic 
conditions, infants with satisfactory digestion, but not 
brought up on the breast, do not show the same 
resistancy against sickness that breast-infants do. It 
is to be hoped that by the intro luction of the normal 
infants' milk the percentage of failures will be 
lessened. The normal milk ma)- be given to infants 
of all ages, but is more particuhirly indicated when 
infants, for some cause or other, take too little food, 
and which, in consequence of insufficient nourish- 



The Mortality of Iii/aiits. i)f 

iiient and intercurrent ailings, have been stunted in 
development, also to infants which are to be weaned- 
froni the lu'east, or where the breast is not entirely 
sufficient, and to such which possess particularly 
irritable organs of digestion. The pugnacious con- 
stipation so often noted in infants that take diluted 
or undiluted cow's milk will vanish with normal 
milk and reappear when changed back to the former. 
Onlv in those forms of acute indigestion that cud 
with diarrhea, and in which milk in any form is not 
supported, also the administration of normal milk 
should be suspended and another regime prescribed 
by the physician. In all other chronic forms of 
indiofestion and indications of weakness a heightened 
assimilation of fat is of importance, as this factor of 
nourishment is particularh- well absorbed by the 
infantile colon without any precursory enzymotic 
transformation. Clinical observations have been 
made in this direction by Birdcrt, Ba)i-~c\ Dcinnic 
and at MoiitTs Polyclinic. The great advantage 
which normal infants' milk poscsses, as couipared 
with other " prepared " or '' modified '' milks, is that 
it contains a proper percentage of fat but only a third 
part of the casein, which is so difficult of digestion, 
and it is just this fat which allows of a copious sup- 
ply of calorics without overburdening the digestive 
organs. An idea prevails that younger infants 
require a nourishment of different composition than 
older ones and that mothers' milk undergoes a change 
with the advancino^ ao:e of the infant. The more 



*.)2 A A^c'ci:' Dairy hidnstry. 

I't'cciit investigations have, however, refuted this 
assumption. It has been found that, apart from the 
first fortnight, the milk from one and the same wet- 
nurse did uot materially change during the entire 
nursing period. Soxhlet^ Heiibiicr and others recom- 
mend .to follow the example set by nature and to 
prepare the normal milk to one unvarying standard, 
and experieuce has proved this to be correct. A 
uiost valuable feature is the steady increase in weight 
of infants that take normal milk. Professor Esche- 
rich has published the results of his investigations in 
this line ; from them I take one example : 





Weight 


Weekly 


Q 


uantitv of 


Week of Life. 


of Infants, in 


.\clvance, in 


Normal Milk 




Grammes. 


Grammes. 




Taken. 


23d .... 


.5,67;! 






1,3.00 


24th . . . . 


0,000 


325 




1,3,00 


2.5th . . . . 


0,500 


500 




1,300 


2Gth . . . ■ . 


6,775 


275 




1,750 


27th . . . . 


0,000 


125 




1,7.50 


2Sth . . . . 


7,100 


200 




2,000 


21»th . . . . 


7,350 


250 




2,000 


;5<)th . . . . 


7,575 


225 




2,000 



This infant, when receiving normal milk for the 
first time, weighed 5,()75 grammes, while the normal 
weight of a babe twenty-three weeks old has been 
found, b}- Camcrcr, to average (i,132 grammes. The 
infant was, therefore, lighter b>- 457 grammes than a 
normal infant. Now, the average advance in weight 
(5 m infant between the twenty-third and thirtieth 
\. . jk has been ascertained at 710 grammes, for such 



The MorlalHy of Infants. 0:5 

as are nursed on the breast, and SIS g-rannues for those 
artificially nursed. The infant in question had, how- 
ever, made a gain of full 1,000 grammes, and at the 
end of the period of observation was <>2~) grammes 
heavier than a normal infant, it had, in other words, 
caught up its deficienc}' and made a big ad\-ance. 
Another striking example is given of a younger 
infant, a baby girl, in the Gras hospital : 



Week of Life. 


Weight 
of Infant, in 


Weekly 
Advance, in 


Quantity of 
Normal .Milk 




Grammes. 


Grammes. 


Taken. 


3d .... 


:],000 





800 


4th .... 


3,850 


250 


000 


5th .... 


4,175 


325 


1,000 


Oth .... 


4,400 


225 


1,000 


7th .... 


4,050 


250 


1,200 


8th .... 


4,800 


1 50 


1,300 


0th .... 


5,100 


;500 


1,300 


10th . . . . 


5,150 


10 


1,200 


nth . . . . 


5,280 


i;;o 


1,240 



In eight weeks this infant had gained 1,<;SU gr., 
while infants artificially nursed and of the same age 
onlv average a gain of 1,100 gr., and children on the 
breast 1,5S2 gr. ; we must here take into considera- 
tion that the hospital is no ideal field for experiments 
in rearing infants on the bottle. 

The transit from common milk to normal milk is, 
generalh', accompanied h\ the immediate cessation of 
any abnormal activity of digestion ; it will be well, 
however, in all cases, to proceed cautiously. Dr. 
Steiner remarks in his report on experiences with 



94 .1 .\Va' Dairy ludustrv. 

normal infants' milk : " Dyspetic infants I give a day 
of fasting, that is, they are pnt on Rnssian tea — ad 
libituDi — and commence the treatment with calomel 
or an irrigation. I have never ventured to pass from 
the dvspepsia-prodncing food to the normal milk 
without this pause of twenty-four or thirty-six hours 
and without cleansing tlie digestive tract. In chronic 
dvspepsias I commence with an irrigation and follow 
up, partly with acid, muriat. dilut. ().")-!. : 2(10 one 
teaspoonful every two hours, or magist. bismuthi 1.0 
-2.0 : 100, or tinct. rhei 1.0 : lOO.o. Where there is 
inclination to vomit I give the milk cold. Scrupul- 
ous cleanliness of feeding bottle ; feeding nipple to be 
put on milk bottle direct. Punctuality in giving the 
meals and in the pauses that have been fixed upon. 
For the normal milk I have found as the best inter- 
vals — cases of premature birth excepted : 

For the first week 2A to :5 hours 

First to second month , . . ;5 hours 

Third to fifth month . . . . : 5. \ hours 

vSixth to twelfth month ... 4 hours 

"During the night one or two feedings. From the 
tenth month onward other food in connection with 
the milk. If infants find the intervals too long, I 
give boiled, and subsequently cooled, spring water 
with a spoon. The strict observance of the quanti- 
ties of milk given has proved to be less urgent than 
the strict observance of the intervals. On the whole, 
I have found the quantities given in the following 



The Mortality of Infants. 95 

table sufficient, although the requirement changes 
with the individual. With weak infants, and such 
that are reconvalescent from Dyspepsia, I always pre- 
scribe the I. grade of normal milk in somewhat 
smaller doses, augmenting them gradually : 







Fee 


ditiR 


vSingle 


Number of 


Quantity con- 


AKe< 


af Infant. 


Inte 


:rval, 


dose, 


meals in 


sumed daily, 






hours. 


gr. 


24 hours. 


gr. 


1 


week 


2.1. 


_;5 


oO- AO 


7-S 


250- :;o() 


1 


month 






,■")()- 100 


— 


850- 700 


'> 


months 






lOO-l.")!) 


"" 


700-1,050 


)) 


months 




;> 1 


100-150 


"■ 


700-1,050 


4 


months 




;>1 


150-200 


0-7 


900-1,400 


5 


months 




•fl 


150-200 


0-7 


900-1,400 


C) 


months 




\ 


150-200 


<;-7 


1^000-1,400 


7-1 > 


months 




4 


250 





1,500 



"After dyspepsia I ha\e found the recuperation of 
weight even more rapid than in breast infants." 

Many believe that two kinds of milk are injurious 
to an infant. This is erroneous. Normal milk can 
be given with greatest advantage together with 
mothers' or nurses' milk ; it should naturally be of 
faultless qualit)-, and adapted to the digestive forces 
of the infant. Professor (Ttertner, of X'ienna, gi\-es 
the following experience with the feeding of twin 
babies who, together, possessed but one nurse, and a 
very poor one at that. From the fifth week of their 
lives, onward, the\- recei\-ed, each, about a pint of the 
normal milk daily, their gain in weight mav be seen 
from the followino- table : 



S6 



A Ncu' Dairy Industi-y. 



f\'cek of 
Life. 

r.th . 

(ith . 

7th . 

sth . 

!»th . 

foth . 



CnARLOTT?: F 

WeiL'ht 



Gain, in 
Grammes. 



;!,oO() 

:5,S(M) ;!(!() 

l,:;r)() ,").-)() 

4,000 250 

r),ooo 400 

."i/i.io -i.io 

(i.Tain in ."> week.s, l,?.")*) or. 



IMklaxik F. 



Week of 
Life. 

:a\\ . 

0th . 

7th . 

Sth . 

0th . 

10th . 



,,, . , , Gain, in 
Weight. Grammes. 

:1250 



;;,r)Oo 2."»o 

;',,o;5o 4;;o 

4,2r)0 ;')2o 

4,080 ;',so 

4,S50 220 

Cxain ill •"> weeks, 1,()00 gr. 



The.se infants were a pictnre of health, and never 
.showed the slightest inconvenience in consequence of 
their variegated bill of fare. 

The success of the.se investigations led to others in 
the direction of ascertaining the effects of normal 
milk on adults. In complaints of the stomach, as 
well as in other derangements, for instance, those ac- 
companied by fever, the activity of this organ is seri- 
ously depressed. The segregation of gastric juice is 
insufficient, or even entirely paralyzed ; the food eaten 
is not digested in a certain space of time, but remains 
for a longer period, passes to fermentation and decom- 
position, engendering the well known symptoms of 
seriiM'.s indigestion. A nourishment which exacts no 
strain on the digestive forces of the stomach should 
be offered to such patients. We know that the mere 
phvsical function of the stomach is to transform the 
food eaten into a homeogenous slop. 

The investigations of :'. Mihi-iiio- have shown that 
fluid;, arc not assimilated in the stomach. Kver\- drop 



The Moiiality of Infants. 97 

of wine, water or beer we coiisuine passes- to tlie 
colon, which is the true organ of resorption. When 
we compare the immense qnantities of flnids some 
people are able to absorb, with the limited capacity 
of the stomach, we may conjectnre that these liqnids 
do not remain in the stomach for a very long time, 
and that they cannot be subjected to digestion in the 
stomach. This is the explanation why, in serious 
derangement of the functions of the stomach, liquid 
nourishment alone is supported. When speaking of 
liquid nourishment we are apt to think of l)roth and 
milk. 

Now, it is known that beef-broth is rather an in- 
centive a stimulant than a nourishment, and that we 
should ne\'er succeed in keeping a person alixe on 
broth alone, while milk contains every ingredient ne- 
cessary to the building up and sustenance of the or- 
ganism. Is milk, however, a liquid nourishment ? 
It is so only as long as it is outside of the stomach. 
On arrival in the stomach it is curdled, transformed 
into a lump by the acid and the rennet present, and 
this lump must be dissoh-ed again b\' the gastric 
juice. Bearing this in mind, we must call cow's milk 
a solid food, and not a liquid one. Physicians find 
this corroborated in their daily practice. Here is the 
all important difference between woman's milk and 
cow's milk, for woman's milk remains liquid, or, what 
is the same, curdles in so minuteh' fine flakes in the 
stomach that it is able to pass on from it without pre- 
vious digestion. 



98 A lYeiv Dairy Industry. 

We have proof that this principle has been known 
and made use of in antiqnity, hnndreds of years 
before the advent of Christ. The physicians, Eury- 
phon and Herodikes, living at the time of Hippocrates 
(4()0 to 387 B. C.) had pnblished a method of curing 
dyspepsia, making their patients take woman's milk 
from the breast, direct. If we are, therefore, able to 
manufacture normal milk in exact imitation of 
mothers' milk, then, we produce a liquid nourish- 
ment which does not remain in the stomach but a 
very short time, and does not put any strain on its 
functions. Buttermilk and whey have the same pro- 
perty, only the\' are deficient in principles of nourish- 
ment. A special indication for normal milk is to 
diabetics ; the milk is then specially prepared with- 
out the addition of milk sugar. Most successful 
treatments are on record with this classs of patients, 
thousands of whom are taking the normal milk 
regularly, up to three liters per day. 



CHAPTER X. 
avtiticial /IDotbers' /IDilk— IRovmal llutants' 

P'rom what has been said in the preceding pages, 
we become aware that the end to be attained, is the 
transformation of pure cow's milk into a milk, which, 
in its nutritive elements, is analogous to mothers' milk, 
the composition of which is of a constant uniformity) 
and its keeping qualities allow of its being trans" 
ported to great distances, and undergo all changes of 
temperature experienced during* summer transporta- 
tion for a lengthened period, without spoiling or any 
way changing. We have also seen that the first step 
to be taken in this direction is the supervision of the 
production of the raw material, the exaction of 
scrupulous cleanliness in the keeping of the milk 
cows and the utensils employed, as well as an unre- 
mittant control of all conditions influencing the phy- 
sical welfare of the cows, and of the quality of the food 
fed to them. 

In a subsequent chapter will be laid down what 
should be exacted to insure a health)- condition of 
the milk. We now pass on to the manufacture of 
this milk into artificial mothers' milk — normal in- 
fants' milk — in two grades, the first to resemble 
mothers' milk in the exact proportion of all nutritious 



loo A Ncco Dairy Industry. 

ingredients, and to be a perfect and wholesome snb- 
stitnte for mothers' milk for infants from the time of 
birth np to the fonrth month ; the second grade of 
normal milk to contain the same percentage of fat, 
allMiminoids and milk-sugar, bnt having a slightly 
higher percentage of casein, being intended to be 
given to infants after the third or fourth month of 
their lives, and to form a transitory food from the first 
grade of milk to pure cow's milk, a most necessary 
precaution, when we take into account the extreme 
difhculty experienced by the infant stomach to digest 
the casein in pure cow's milk. 

In undertaking to describe the various operations 
destined to transform cow's milk into normal infants' 
milk it must, right here, be admitted that no descrip- 
tion, however lucid, will enable a beginner to produce 
the desired article from the start, there being con- 
nected with the whole proceeding a number of small 
manipulations and advantages, which although in no 
manner business secrets (as some would try to make 
them out and guard them from the public) \'et are 
proceedings which are only mastered b}' practical 
experience and personal application. In Germany, 
Austria and France, where the manufacture of nor- 
mal infants' milk is rapidly gaining ground, this 
apparent difficulty is by no means considered a dis- 
advantage, but, quite the contrary, as a protection, as 
it tends to keep at a distance that class of competi- 
tion which would speedily tend to discredit normal 
milk. 



■irlificial MoiJurs' Milk. 



101 



The principal operations we shall have to follow 
will be : 

The testing of the cow\s milk for fat percentage 

and acidity. 
The separating into cream and skim milk. 
The rednction of the casein in the skim milk 

and the transformation of the remaining into 

the finelv coao-nlatino- form. 
The mixing, sugaring and bottling. 
The sterilizing and the testing of the sterilized 

milk as to its keeping qualities and its freeness 

from germs. 

Starting on the assumption that the manufacture is 
to be connected with an es- 
tablished dairy, and, as we 
shall see later on, the man- 
ufacture of the normal milk 
and the maintenance of the 
dairy, is inseparable one 
from the other if an}' guar- 
antee of purity is to be at- 
tained it will then generally 
be found advantageous foi; 
the beginner to pass the 
milk over a system of cool- 
ers immediately after draw- 
ing, and this will become an absolute necessity wdiere 
the evening's milking has to be turned into normal 
milk on the following morning. 

The milk, as it runs from the cooler, is collected in 

s 




Fig. 23-STAR MILK COOLER. 



102 A Nt'-w Dairy Industry. 

laro;e receiving vats, where it may be thoroughly 
mixed. The first proceeding is to make sure of the 
percentage of fat contained in the entire quantity' of 
milk. If the .same cows are milked daily for the 
manufacture of the normal milk, and the same food 
fed to them without change, then it will suffice to 
take the fat test but once a week ; if, however, a new 
cow has been brought in, or one of the old ones dis- 
charged, or the feed been changed in any way, then 
a test will be neccs.sary as often as one of the in- 
dicated changes has occurred. To take a fair test 
.sample, the milk should previously be well stirred 
with a wooden paddle for two minutes consecutively. 
There are milk samplers, like the ScoviIh\ in the 
market, yet a common white gla.ss tube, three-eighths 
of an inch inside diameter, will answer the purpose 
equally well. Its length .should exceed by six inches, 
more or less, the depth of vessel in which the milk is 
contained. This tube is dipped into the milk, the 
upper end closed by pressing on the thumb. When 
the tube has reached the bottom of the vessel, the 
thumb is removed, the lips are applied, and, by a 
steady suction, drawing the tube upwards out of the 
milk slowly, the tube is filled with milk from all 
parts of the vessel. This is repeated three or four 
times, emptying the .samples into a glass dish. If the 
milk to be turned into normal milk has been collected 
in several different vessels, then the test samples have 
to be taken from each and every one, and in a fair 
proportion to the contents of each vessel, so that if. 



Artificial Mothers' Milk. 103 

for instance, four glass tubefuls have been drawn 
from a vessel containing forty quarts, then from a 
vessel containing but thirty quarts only three tube- 
fuls should be drawn, or two from another vessel 
containing only twenty quarts, etc. The test samples 
are all collected in the same dish and the testing at 
once performed. The temperature of milk for testing 
should be 0'2° F., more or less. Two colateral tests 
should be made of every sample to avoid errors. 
Quite a number of methods and apparatus for testing 
have been in\ented, the most accurate being probably 
the Soxhlct ; for use in dairies, however, this method 
is too complicated, and the best known tester in this 
country is the Babcock. 

According to the instructions kindly furnished me 
by Prof. S. M. Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural 
Experiment Station, the method of operating the test 
is as follows : 

THE BABCOCK TKST. 

The estimation of fat in milk by this test is ac- 
complished by adding to a definite quantity of milk, 
in a graduated test bottle, an equal volume of com- 
mercial sulphuric acid of a spgr. of 1.S2-1.83. This 
acid dissolves the casein, setting free the fat, which is 
then completely separated from the liquid in the 
bottle by whirling in a centrifugal machine. Hot 
water is afterwards filled into the bottles to bring the 
separated fat into the graduated neck, where the per 
cent, is read directly from the scale. 



104 A Ay7(' Dairy Indnslrx. 

MAKING THE TEST. 

Sa))ipli)io iJic Milk. — Accurate tests can onl}- be ob- 
tained when the cream is evenly distributed through- 
out the whole mass of milk. This is best accomplished 
by pouring the milk a number of times from one 
vessel to another. Pouring three or four times 
will be sufficient for fresh milk fresh from the 
cow. Milk that has stood until a layer of cream 
has formed, should be poured more times, until 
all clots of cream are broken up and the whole 
appears homogenous. 



; 



N 



/7.fcc 



\ 



MEASURING THE MILK. 

When the milk has been sufficiently mixed, 
the milk pipette i.s filled by placing its lower 
end into the milk and sucking at the upper end 
/ until the milk rises above the mark on the stem; 
then remove the pipette from the mouth and 
quickly close the tube at the upper end by firm- 
ly pressing the end of the index finger upon it 
Fig-10' to prevent access of air. So lono- as this is done 

MILK ' 

PIPETTE the milk cannot flow from the pipette. Holding- 
the pipette in a. perpendicular position, with the mark 
on the level with the eye, carefully relieve the pres-- 
sure on the finger so as to admit air slowh' to the 
space above the milk. In order to more easih' con- 
trol the access of air, the finger and end of the pipette 
should be dry. When the upper surface of the milk 
coincides with the mark upon the stem, the pressure 
hould be renewed to stop the flow of milk. Next 



Artificial Mothers Milk. 10."") 

place the pipette in the mouth of one of the test 
bottles, held in a slightly inclined position so that the 
milk will flow down the side of the tube, leaving a 
space for the air to escape without clogging the neck, 
and remove the finger, allowing the milk to flow into 
the bottle. After waiting a short time for the pipette 
to drain, blow into the upper end to expel the milk 
held b)' capillary attraction in the point. If the 
pipette is not dry when used, it should be filled with 
the milk to be tested, and this thrown away before 
taking the test sample. If several samples of 
the same milk are taken for comparison, the 
milk should be poured once from one vessel 
to another l)efore each sample is measured. 

ADDING THK ACID. 



Great care should be taken in handling the pjg 12. 
acid, as it is very corrosive, causing sores upon acid 
the skin and destroying clothing unless quick- 
ly removed. If, by accident, any is spilled upon the 
clothes or hands, it should be washed off immedi- 
ately, using plenty of water. A prompt application 
of ammonia water to clothing upon which acid is 
sj^illed ma)' prevent the destruction of the fabric, or 
restore the color. 

The acid measure is filled to the mark with sul- 
phuric acid and carefully poured into the test bottle 
containing the milk to be tested. This bottle should 
be held in a slightly inclined position, so as to allow 
ll'.e acid to run down the side of the bottle. The 



106 



A Nca' Dairy Industry 



acid is heavier than the milk and sinks directly to the 
bottom, forming a clear layer. The acid and milk 
should be thoroughly mixed together bv shaking at 
first with a rotary motion until the curd which forms 
is entirely dissolved, and then completed with a 
vigorous shake sidewa}'s. A large amount of heat is 
evolved by the chemical action, and the liquid changes 
gradually to a dark brown. 



WHIRLINCr TlIK P.OTTLKS. 

The test bottles containing the 
mixture of milk and acid should 
be placed in the machine directly 
after the acid is added. An even 
number of bottles should be 
whirled at the same time, and 
they should be placed in the 
wheel in pairs opposite to each 
other, so that the equilibrium of 
the apparatus will not be dis- 
turbed. When all tlie test bot- 




Ftg.ll-IMPROVED ACID BURETTE. 



ties are placed in the apparatus, 
the cover is placed upon the 
jacket, and the machine turned at the proper sj^eed 
for about five minutes. The test should ue\-er be 
made without the cover being placed upon the jacket, 
as this not only prevents the cooling of the bottles 
when they are whirled, but, in case of the breakage of 
bottles, may protect the face and eyes of the operator 
from injury by pieces of glass or hot acid. 



Artificial Mothers' Millc. 



107 



FILLIXO THE BOTTLES WITH HOT WATER. 

After the bottles have been whirled, they should be 
filled immediately, with boiling- water, to the neck, 
and then whirled again for about one minute, and 
more water added to bring the fat into the graduated 
neck. A third whirl of about one minute is given to 
bring all of the fat iuto the neck where it can be 
measured. 

MEASURING THE FAT. 

The fat should be measured im- 
mediately after the. whirling is com- 
pleted, before it has cooled to a 
point where it does not flow freely. 
If many tests are to be made at the 
same time, better results are ob- 
tained by setting the bottles in hot 
water to keep the fat in liquid con- 
dition until the readings can be 
taken. To measure the fat, hold 
the bottle in a perpendicular position with llie scale 
on a level with the eye, and observe the divisions 
which mark the highest and the lowest limits of the 
fat. The difference between these gives the per cent. 
of fat directly. The readings should be taken to half 
divisions of the scale, or to one-tenth per cent. 

-The readings may be made with less liability of 
error by measuring the length of the column of fat 
with a pair of dividers, one point of which is placed 
at the bottom and the other at the upper limit of the 




TtaS TBE 

BUTTER VALlc --"rS*;:, 

nil atmi. <.^>^ 
Fif, 13. 
SMALL WHU.L'KG MACHINE. 



108 



A A^CcC Daitv Iiuiiistry 



fat. The dividers are then removed, and one point 
placed at the mark of the scale on the bottle used, 
the other will be at the per cent, of fat in the milk ex- 
amined. 

Skim }jiilk^ bnticr))iilk and iclivy are tested in the 
•same general manner as full milk, except that .skim 
milk and buttermilk require about one-fourth more acid 
and should be whirled about two minutes longer than 
whole milk, while whey requires only about two- 
thirds as much acid as milk. Where the amount of 




Fig. 14-STEAM TURBINE WHIRLING MACHINE. 

fat is less than two-tenths per cent, it often assumes a 
globular form instead of a uniform layer acro.ss the 
tube ; where this occurs, the per cent, of fat must be 
estimated. In doing this, it must be remembered 
that any appearance of fat in the tube indicates as 
much as .05 per cent. It is not possible, with the 
Babcock test, to detect le.ss than .0.1 per cent, of fat. 



CREAM. 



Special bottles are provided for testing cream. The 
operation is the same as with milk, except that the 



Artificial Motiicrs' Milk. 



Ill) 



cream adlierin,i>' to the pipette should be rinsed into 
the bottle with a little water, and, after the acid is 
added, the bottle should be allowed to stand for 
about five minutes before it is whirled. During this 
time it should be shaken occasionally, and if the room 
is cold the bottle should be kept hot by setting in hot 
water. 

Cream may be tested in the ordinary bottles by di- 
viding the test sample, as nearly as can be judged by 
the eye, into three bottles. The pipette is then rinsed 
twice into the three bottles with water, and the test 
made as with milk, the readings upon the three bot- 
tles being added together for the per cent, of fat. 

Where a balance is available, the best method is to 
weigh the cream into an ordinary test bottle, taking 
about five grammes for a test, and adding to this 
about 12 c. c. of water. The test is then made as 
with milk, the readings being multiplied by eighteen 
and the product divided by the number of grammes 
of cream taken for the per cent, of fat. 

Condensed milk is tested in the same manner as 
cream. The sample should always be weighed, as 
these milks are usually too thick to be accurately 
measured with a pipette. 

As we may surmise, the fat test is one of greatest 
importance towards insuring an unvarying quality in 
the normal milk. The result of the tests should be 
kept on record, as they are of value to indicate the 
influence which changes in the feed ha\e on the per- 
centas^e of fat in the milk. 



110 A-iVezL' Dairy Industry. 

Besides the fat test, it becomes necessary, periodi- 
cally, to make a test of the acidity of the milk to be 
used ; this is more particularly the case in hot weather, 
or where ensilage is fed, or any apprehension exists 
as to the sweetness of the fodder or pasturage. For 
the acid test, ;")() cub. cent, of milk arc placed in a 
glash dish, 2'='^ of hydrate of sodium and two or three 
drops of phenolphtalein added and mixed together. 
To this we now cautiously add common sulphuric 
acid, bv means of a graduated pipette, constantly 
stirring, until a decidedly pink tinge appears in the 
milk. When this has set in the accurate quantity of 
acid added in c. c. is ascertained, and we call every 
cubic centimeter added one degree of acidit>-. In 
this way milk to be used in the manufacture of nor- 
mal milk may contain no more than three degrees of 
acidity, any excess of this quantity will tend to spoil 
the milk — to make it curdle. Milk that shows 4.5 
degrees of acidity is unfit for the manufacture of 
normal milk. Milk which has turned sour shows 
liS.r) degrees of acidit\' ; butter ma>' show l") degrees. 

If we have found our milk sweet we now proceed 
to the separation of the cream from the skim milk, 
conducting the milk into a tempering \at where it 
attains a temperature of S(;° p\ The separator is 
graduated in a manner to turn out one-third of the 
volume of the milk as cream and two-thirds as skim 
milk. This must strictly be adhered to, as on this 
division all subsequent calculations are based. After 
the .separator gets first started, four or five gallons of 



Artificial Mothers' Milk. 



Ill 



the skim milk are caught in a separate vessel and put 
aside, to be passed throiioh the separator again with 




Fig. 15-De LAVAL STEAM TURBINE CREAM SEPARATOR. 

the last of the milk. Any good separator may be 
used ; where, however, larger quantities are to he 



112 A Nc'cL' Dairy /ndusiry. 

produced, the use of the steaui turbiue separator is to 
be recomuieuded, aud the dc Lai'al has here given 
universal satisfaction. When all milk has passed 
through the separator the scales are used to ascertain 
if the separation has been effected in the prescribed 
proportions, returning some of the skim milk to the 
cream if this latter had not come up to one-third of 
the entire quantity. 

The percentage of fat to be given to the normal 
nrilk is three per cent., or one hundred pounds of 
milk should contain three hundred units of fat ; a 
richer milk will therefore have to be reduced by the 
addition of skim milk, or by the retention of a por- 
tion of the cream ; a milk poor in fat will have to be 
enriched by the addition of cream, or by the reten- 
tion of part of the skim milk. As an example : We 
wish to use 260 pounds of milk testing 4.2 per cent. 
of fat ; we separate this into 

'iMSSS pds. cream 173.4 pds. skim milk. 

As we wish our normal milk to contain but 3 per 
cent of fat, we must find out how much of this cream 
will have to be returned to the skim milk to result in 
a milk of the desired percentage. 

4.2 : 3 -= S0.() : x 

3, V soi; 

°^'' = Gl.Spds. 

42 

The reverse will be the case where milk is found 
to be below the required standard of fat percentage. 



Artificial Moflirrs' Millc. 113 

The cream vessel is now covered, placed in a cold 
water bath and pnt ont of the way while we proceed 
to extract the excess of paracasein from the skim 
milk, a process in which L") per cent, of the original 
weight of the skim milk is lost, and which is an item 
to be taken into acconnt when making calcniatioiis 
for fixed quantities required. Tables of figures- have 
been prepared to show the quantities of cream and 
.skim milk with reference to the different percentage 
of fat and the loss of paracasein for the preparation 
of both grades of milk. 

We mav call to mind what has been previously .said 
on the simple mixtures of milk, cream, water and 
milk sugar, which do good service to older infants, 
when properly prepared, but are not adapted for con- 
sumption by the new-born babe ; because the albumen 
in them is administered, principally, in the form of 
cow casein, which latter will, according to the ex- 
periences of Bicdert^ continually be accompanied by 
deleterious effects, even if its form of coagulation has 
been somewhat changed by the manipulation it will 
go through in this process. 

The more recent elementary analysis of JVrob/cccskr 
seems to prove, without doubt, that a most distinct dif- 
ference exists between cow casein and human casein. 
If the diluting of cow's milk is carried to a point 
where only one per cent, of casein is left in the milk — 
the limit of quantity which the infant's stomack 
will endnre — then there is a deficiency of albumen and 
.salts. Corresponding to the large admixture of water;. 



114 A Neiv Dairy Industry. 

we also find it necessary to oi\-e a heavy dose of milk 
suo'ar, bv which the costs of the niannfactnre would 
be greath' enhanced. B}- some, it has been tried to 
substitute the cheaper cane sugar, but this has proved 
a faihire on account of its greater propensity to turn 
acid in the infant's stomach, and because milk sugar 
possesses special properties of the greatest importance, 
to ignore which woukl be equivalent to endangering 
the reliabilitv of the entire process of turning cow's 
milk into artificial mothers' milk. The chemical and 
physiological action of milk sugar on the organism 
cannot be substituted by either maltose, glucose or 
cane sugar. To imitate nature — an ever reliable 
practice in similar cases — has here not proved to be 
an effective argument, as milk sugar plays but an in- 
significant part in the customary nourishment of in- 
fants, while the most unnatural admixtures : the 
starchy matter contained in so-called infant foods, are 
frequently resorted to. SoxJiIct found the absolute 
necessity of milk sugar to the infant founded on the 
following differences between it and other sugars : 

1. Excepting cane sugar, which for other reasons 
cannot be considered, milk sugar is the only kind of 
sugar which, when heated with nitric acid, produces 
slimy acid, wdrile the other sugars produce sugar acid. 

2. Cane sugar, maltose and glucose disintegrate in 
the presence of common alcoholic ferment into al- 
cohol and carbonic acid ; milk sugar remains un- 
changed, and resists to all fermentative influences by 
far more powerfully. 



Artificial Mothers' Milk. 115 

3. Milk sugar possesses only about one-third of the 
sweetness of cane sugar ; we are, therefore, able to mix 
three times the quantity to a nourishment without pro- 
ducing a repugnant sweetness. 

4. It is not transformed like the other sugars into 
glykogen, has an enhanced combustability and passes 
easily into the urine. 

5. Maltose and cane sugar are the most rapidly 
absorbed, milk sugar but very slowly ; 70 to 80 per 
cent, of the former in one hour, of milk sugar but 20 
to 40 per cent., depending on the strength of solution. 

(). The accumulation of the rapidly absorbed sugars 
in the blood produces very notable changes in the 
functions of the apparatus of circulation, which per- 
sist until the blood is relieved of this excess of suo;ar. 
The pressure of blood is heightened, the vessels be- 
come expanded, the pulse is augmented, circulation 
is so much accelerated that double the quantity of 
blood passes through the same vein during a meas- 
ured span of time. Milk sugar produces quite a 
unique efTect on the circulation ; although the blood 
pressure is equally enhanced if given in large doses, 
yet the pulse is not accelerated, but rather diminished, 
producing an ample systole. The heightened pres- 
sure of blood is caused by the irritating effect the 
other sugars have on the heart and its vessels ; the 
diminishing of the pulse is ascribed to the specific 
influence of the milk sugar on the checking appar- 
atus of the heart. 

7. While the other sugars are nearly entirely ab- 



116 A Are*' Dairy Industry. 

sorbed throiig-li the stomach, there will alwa}-s pass 
a considerable quantity of the milk sug-ar to the colon, 
where it invariably produces a heightened secretion 
of slime and gall, and by this means acts slightly 
purgative. It is particularly to this specific effect of 
milk sugar that attention should be drawn, as it 
makes milk sugar not only an invaluable, but also a 
most necessary, admixture to artificial mothers' milk. 

KcJircr had conceived the idea of producing an 
infants' milk by mixing the whey produced in cheese 
factories with cream, but after exhaustive experi- 
ments this proved to be misatisfactory, on account of 
such whey being too poor in albuminoids, besides 
being too strongly polluted with bacteria, having ac- 
quired a pronounced change in taste and commonly 
possessing an amount of acidity by far in excess of 
any to be tolerated in the manufacture of normal in- 
fants' milk. In a like manner it has been tried to 
make use of cream procured from creameries, but 
with equally unsatisfactory results, this cream being 
strongly infected with bacteria, and the butter fats 
so strongly influenced by improper feeding that the 
palatability and keeping qualities of the normal milk 
are greatly impaired. These experiments have, how- 
ever, proved invaluable, by showing the way on which 
the desired end might be reached. 

If we treat fresh, clean cow's milk by a properly 
prepared rennent ferment, observing proper tempera- 
ture, time of acting, and special method of stirring, 
we are able to produce an albuminous milk serum, 



Artificial Mothers Milk. 117 

because this ferineiit has dissolved the casein into 
paracasein and soluble peptonic whe>'-pi'otein^ of 
which onl}- the first named is expelled as a stifi" curdled 
sediment. 

All the albumen of the milk and all of the milk 
sugar are retained in this serum, and if our milk has 
been produced under observation of all precautions 
herein enumerated, it will be of an agreeable, sweetish 
taste and its acidity so small that the albumen — which 
in connnon whey, separates at l.~)S° F., in consecjuence 
of the higher acidity — remains incor23orated up to 
much higher temperatures, so that an effective sterili- 
zation is possible without damaging the nutritive 
qualities of the proteids. This is a delicate process, 
furnishing, however, a milk serum containing one 
per cent, of albumen, composed of easih' digestible 
albuminoids, the whey protein and lacto protein, and, 
besides, five per cent, of milk sugar. If this fluid is 
condensed to four-fifths of its volume by the use of a 
vacuum pan, then we attain l.'io per cent, of albumen 
and 0.25 per cent, of milk sugar. By the addition of 
cream we attain one-half per cent, of casein and from 
3 to o.o per cent, of fat, a combination analogous in 
every respect to mothers' milk. 

The percentage of ashes and salts is, undoubtedlv, 
somewhat higher in this prepared milk than in 
mothers' milk, although by the action of the ferment 
the percentage of salts has been reduced. Normal 
milk shows an excess of 0.3 per cent, of salts over 
mothers' milk, but elaborate experiments have shown 



lis A Neic Dairy Industry. 

that this excess is not only harmless, but, on the con- 
trar\-, entailing- an augmented percentage of phosphate 
of lime, and therefore welcome in the systems of all 
infants disposed to attacks of scrofula, rachitis and 
kindred ailments. The ferment employed in the ex- 
traction of casein is prepared b\- a process exclusively 
adapted to laboratory work, and may, therefore, be ad- 
vantageously left to those, who are by training better 
fitted, to attend and watch a process which requires a 
number of scientific appliances to produce an article 
-of unvarying strength and composition. It is this 
part of the manufacture only which is not in the 
hands of the dairyman, but experience has shown 
that this is rather an advantage than otherwise. 
Without taking into consideration the time it would 
take the dairyman to produce the ferment for his own 
use, the production in the laboratory on a large scale 
can be effected with much greater economy. The 
properties of this ferment are : 

1. That it imparts to the milk the slight alkaline 
reaction which we note in the woman's milk, and 
which, undoubtedly, must be considered as an essen- 
tial factor in the process of digestion. 

'1. That it dissolves a part of the casein ; so that 
we attain to an equal amount of digestible albumen, 
the same as in woman's milk. 

3. That it curdles the paracasein and transforms 
the remaining casein into the form or fine flaked 
curdling. The strength of the ferment is continually 
tested and the quantity required for curdling is clearly 



Artificial Mothers' Milk. 



11!) 



printed on every package. We now proceed to the 
operation of cnrdling. The skim milk is placed in a 
vat especially constrncted for the purpose, fitted with 
enveloping steam jacket and heated 104° F.; the 
ferment is now added in the exact proportion which 
the strength of the ferment calls for; the milk is 




Fig. 16-CUROLING VAT. 

now stirred for three minutes ; the vat is then covered 
and left for fifteen minutes, when the stirring is re- 
newed with a Daddle until curdling sets in, which 
should take place about thirty minutes after adding 
the ferment. Instantly after curdling has taken place 



120 A N('7c Dairy Industry. 

steam is turned into tlie steam jacket and the tem- 
perature brought up to 12'2^ F., where it is kept 
during the time necessary to remove the himp of 
paracasein, which has now formed on the bottom of 
the \-at, and which is effected by means of sie\es fit- 
ting snugly into the bottom of the vat. The 
remaining whe>- will be found with agreeable, sweet 
taste but must not retain any sediment of casein. 
The vat is now heated to KiT^ V. and kept at this 
temperature for fort\-fi\'e minutes to deaden the effect 
of an\- ferment remaining, great care being recpiired 
not to exceed this temperature, or the albuminoids 
will become indigestible. At this stage of proceed- 
ino-s it is well to call to mind that no utensils or 
vessels must now be dipped into the serum, or whey, 
which previously ha\^e been used in fresh milk or 
cream. After the elapse of the forty-five minutes of 
heating, the serum is now returned and mixed with 
the cream previously separated from it, until it 
appears as one homogenous fluid. Where condensing 
is not applied to highten the percentage of milk sugar 
this latter must now be added (five grammes per pound ), 
thoroughly mixed with the normal milk, which is at 
once bottled and ready for the sterilzing apparatus. 

Before following this milk to sterilizing, we turn 
to the manufacture of the second grade of normal 
milk. The fresh milk is separated into one-third 
part cream and two-thirds parts skim milk, the same 
as for the first grade, and the calculation of fat per- 
centage performed in the same manner. The casein 



Arlijuial Mothers'' Milk. Vl\ 

in this skim milk is, liowex'er, not extracted, l)ut oiih" 
reduced l)y removin<4- one-half of the entire quantity 
of skim milk and replacino- it by pure water, with 
the addition of t\\eh-e orammes of milk sn<^ar per 
pound of milk manufactured. 

As to the advisability of using milk rich in fat, or 
such which is less, so, will depend on the profitable 
use the remaining cream or skim milk can be put to. 
Where an equal demand exists for both grades of the 
normal milk, there will, when using a milk with less 
than :).:'> per cent, of fat, always remain a surplus of 
skim milk. In the manufacture of grade I. alone, 
there will nearly always be a surplus of cream, while 
in the manufacture of grade II. alone, there will 
always remain on hand a surplus of skim milk. As 
a general direction, it may, however, be laid down 
that milk, to be profital)ly used. up, should not fall 
below three per cent, of butter fat. 

If bottles of different color are not used for the I. 
and II. grades of the milk, then proper precaution 
must be provided so that bottles with different con- 
tents do not get mixed in sterilizing. Various bottling 
de vices and apparatus are in use — a ver)- good one is 
made by Boldt & \'ogel, of Hamljurg. 

The bottle to be used is shown in Fig. l'.»; it is 
manufactured in three sizes, to contain four, seven 
and ten ounces each of "normal milk." As soon as 
filled, the rubber caps are drawn on the bottles by 
hands scrupulotisly clean. 

The innumerable changes that have been brou"-ht 



122 



A Neii' Dairy Industry 



out in sterilizing machines, during the last few years, 
are, in themselves, proof of the general deficienc)' of 
these machines. I shall draw attention to the one 
that has given great satisfaction in sterilizing the 
normal infants' milk. It is built to my order by the 
Dairyman's Supply Co., of Philadelphia, and shown 




Fig. 17-AUTOiVIATIC BOTTLING APPARATUS, 

in F'ig. 1<S. A is the bed |)late with heav\- flange and 
ruljber packing, on to which the hood or dome !'> is 
lowered and securely fastened by clamps all around. 
D is an upright metal tube carrying the shelves or 
plates C, on which the milk bottles are placed. These 
shelves are adjustable to different height and distance 
from each other to accommodate different sizes of 



Artificial Mothers Milk. 



123 



bottles. E is a metal arm or bracket to carry the 
bottle, into which the thermometer dips to register 
tlie temperature of 
the milk in the bot- 
tles during steriliza- 
tion. A .second ther- 
mometer, F, is ne- 
cessary to show the 
gradual heating of 
apparatus. This is 
a most nece.ssaiy pre- 
caution, without 
which, considerable 
1)reakage of bottles 
is unavoidable". The 
steam enters at S, 
ascending b \- the 
central tube D, and 
passes out on to the 
shelves 1)\- numerous 
holes. Through T 
cold air can be forced 
into the apparatus, 
this tube connecting 
with the ice house. 
G is an exhaust pipe 
for carrying off the 
air at the beeinnin^ 




Fig. 18-BLACK FOREST STERILIZER. 



of tlie operation, and is u.sed again later when the 
required heat and pressure have been attained, .s.o that 



124 



A N'i'U' Dairy Industry. 



a continuous circulation of steam may be kept up in 
the apparatus. A rubber tube is fastened to the end 
of G and carried into a vessel with water to condense 
the escaping steam. H is the safety valve. I, the 
steam gauge. The bed plate is made concave, with 
an outlet, K, to carry off the condensing water and 
milk that mav accummulate from breakage. The 




Fig. 19-MILK BOTTLES IN CARRIER READY FOR STERILIZING. 

shelves are slightly convex for the same reason. The 
bottles are placed in wire carriers, six of which fill 
one of the shelves of the sterilizer. The\- are not 
downright necessary, but will always be found a great 
convenience and a saving in time and labor. A carrier 
is shown in Fig. 1'.*. 

The duration of heating and cooling periods, which 
together form one process of sterilization, are the fol- 
lowing : One heating to 21 "2° for thirty minutes, then 



. [rtijicial Mothers' Milk. 



keeping for three hours at U.")", then heating to 212° 
for another half honr, then cooling to <)4° for ten 
hours, then a final heating to 212° for forty-five min- 
utes, and the cooling off to ^^'^'' as rapidly as the 
bottles will stand. This rule for sterilizing should, 
however, not be considered as fixed and unchangeable, 
but it should be left to the investigation of the indi- 
vidual manufacturer of normal infants' milk to find 





Fig. 20-AUTOMATIC SEALING CAP. 

out, by trials, if the bacteria predominating in his 
milk will allow of a modification or simplification of 
the heating and cooling periods. 

If the entrance of steam has been properly tem- 
pered the breakage of bottles should be \er\- small ; 
if, in spite of all care, there should result more than 
one per cent, of breakage, then the glass is too brittle, 
the bottles have been too rapidly cooled after manu- 
facturing them. Before the second heating is com- 
menced the hood is lifted and the bottles are inspected. 



120 A Nrri' Dairy Industry. 

If the sealing by the rnbl^er cap has been effective, 
this must be visible by the top of the cap showing a 
slight indenture. At times, when the heating has 
been too sudden, the violent escape of air from the 
bottles ma)' have lifted the cap so that it does not 
show a concave ; such rubber caps must now be 
pressed down again firmly and the}' will come out 
with hermetical sealing after the second heating. 

The cooling must, ever)- time, needs be accom- 
plished very gradualh', else considerable breakage 
will occur. 

The last cooling should l:)e to the lowest tempera- 
ture attainable, a liberal supply of ice being an 
indispensible requirement of the establishment. 

Immediateh' after withdrawing the bottles from 
the last heating in the sterilizer labels must be pasted 
on designating by their shape and color the grade of 
milk the\' contain. 

RECAPITULATION OF :\IAXrFACTURING PROCESS. 

Cool the milk at once after drawing, to 40^ F., 
unless there are milkers enough to keep the separator 
running from the start. 

Test the fat percentage and acidity of milk. 

Warm the milk to S(;° F. previous to separating. 

Separate and w^eigh cream and skimmed milk into 
one-third and two-thirds parts separately. 

Calculate the quantities of cream and skim milk 
which have to be emplo}'ed in the manufacture of 
grades I. and II., respectively. 



Arfificial Motlicrs' Milk. \Ti 

Pour skim milk into the curdling- vat and heat to 

Place cream in cold water l)ath. 

Add ferment to skim milk and let stand for fifteen 
minutes, then stir until curdling sets in, which should 
be about thirty minutes after time of adding the 
ferment. 

Take out the paracasein at once. 

Heat the remaining albuminous serum to 1()7°, and 
keep at this temperature for forty-fi\'e minutes, well 
covered. 

Add the milk sugar, thoroughly stirring, then mix 
with the cream and sterilize. 

For manufacturing the second grade, separate as for 
grade I., then divide skim milk as per calculation, 
add water, milk sugar and cream, mix thoroughly, 
bottle and sterilize. 

Sterilize both grades equally. Keep in cool storage. 

PVom every day's output of sterilized milk take 
two sample bottles, selecting one from the upper 
shelf of sterilizing apparatus and one from lower 
shelf, and place in bacteri-a incubator, properly labeled, 
for the purpose of ascertaining the keeping qualities 
of the milk ; and, also, if the sterilizer works equally 
well at top as it does at the bottom. 

The greatest neatness and exactness should natur- 
ally prevail in executing all these operations, the manu- 
facturer bearing in mind that he has guaranteed hi.s 
product to be of a uniform standard of excellance^ 
and that the normal infants' milk should show the 



\'1S 



A \c7C Dairy Industry. 



same percentage of nourishing- ingredients whenexer 
it max' l)e anahzed b\' a chemist. 





ANALYSIS. 








Human 


Normal Milk. 


Normal Milk, 


Cow's 

Milk. 




Mlik. 


Cirade I. 


Grade II. 




Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Per Cent. 


Fat .... 


. "..2 


;5.o 


3.0 


3-5 


Casein . . . 


. 0.7.". 


1.0 


2.0 


3.0 


Albumen . . 


. 1.0 


o.s 


0.4 


0.() 


Milk suoar . 


. (\.\l:> 


(i.O 


'").7 


4.S 


Salt . .\ . 


. 0.4 


0.(5 


0.."i 


0.7 



To exclude all po.ssib 




feml 



^"f^^^Tof Dr. ToJIenJ/ 




Fig. 21-DlSlNFECTING LAMP. 

alcohol and the wick 
platina wire nettino-. 
waiting to see the plati 
flames is blown out w 



ility of pollution b}- l)acteria 
floating in the air of the 
laboratory (the mixing- or 
the sterilizing localities) a 
disinfection of these prem- 
ises should periodicalh' be 
instituted. The safest and 
simplest wa}' is by apply- 
ing the fumes of formic 
aldehyd, a gas which kills 
all floating bacteria or 
germs. The lamp by which 
these fumes are generated 
is shown at Fig. 21. The 
ve.s.sel is filled with methyl 
co\-ered b\- a cap made of 
After lighting the wick and 
na netting become red hot, the 
hen the o-lowing; of the wire 



Arlificial Mothers' Milk. 



1 'l\^ 



netting, however, continues pi'oducing a gas known as 
fumes of formic aldehyd. As soon as the fumes 
are strongly noticeable to our smelling organ, then 
the desired effect has been attained. The lamp is an 
invention of Professor Tollens, of (Tcettiugen, and 
nia\' be procured through Messrs. Eimer t!\: Amend, 
•.^0.") Third avenue, X"ew York citw 




CHAPTER XI. 
Ubc IRormal Bairp. 

While no single part or ingredient of hnnian food 
is of greater or eqnal importance and merits in its 
production in a higher degree strict supervision, yet 
none is consumed with a greater indifference as to its 
origin and pureness than cow's milk. 

Considering the great advancements in the techni- 
cal and scientific parts of dairying during the last 
decade, it is strange that the production of healthful 
infants' milk should have been so signally neglected. 
There exists no doubt to-day but what cow's milk is 
the best natural substitute for mother's milk and the 
best food for a child after weaning. Even if it were 
true that asses' milk would be preferable, there is too 
little of it ; or, if goat's milk were preferable on ac- 
count of this animal's freedom from tuberculosis, yet 
the disagreeable taint peculiar to this milk, arising 
from the capronine it contains, makes it undesirable 
to most people, so that if there are other mammals 
whose milk, in its composition, comes closer to 
mother's milk, yet they are not of a kind either to 
furnish a sufficiency for our needs or they are not so 
domesticated as to allow us to draw it. 

The conditions for the production of a healthy 
milk start with the selection of the cow, the feed she 



TJic Xoniiai Dairy. lol 

receives, the degree of cleanliness she is kept in, 
and in the treatment given at the hands of the dairy- 
man. 

As villaoes o-rew into towns and towns into cities 
there wonld be fonnd everywhere a class of people 
that offered enconragement to the maintaining of 
one or more dairies in close vicinit}' to the nrban popu- 
lation. In many of the larger cities of the old conti- 
nent dairy establishments had been maintained ever 
since the beginning of the present century, and, 
although they did not furnish anything else but 
raw milk, such as was drawn from the cows, yet the 
choice feeding and cleanliness practiced by these 
dairies, which w'ere under the daily inspection of the 
patrons, insured a degree of confidence in the pure- 
ness of the product which allowed the dairyman to 
charge such prices for his milk as would liberally re- 
imburse him for the extra outlay encountered. Con- 
ditions allied to the mammoth growth of our modern 
cities made it, however, impossible to increase the 
number of these useful establishments, or even to 
prolong the existence of the old ones. The high 
value of building lots on one side, the hygienic ob- 
jections to the accunnnulation of manure and the 
difficulty to dispose of this valuable residue at a profit 
on the other, have made these dairies disappear. The 
control of quality of the milk that was then exercised 
by the patrons now passed into the hands of the 
health authorities and the police, and was extended 
to all milk furnished for consumption, and it seemed 



l:>2 A Neiv Dairy Industry. 

as if we had reached the boundary of the influence 
which we could exercise over the quality of market- 
able milk. We shall not here investigate what degree 
of efficiency this control has reached in general, or 
if it be sufficient to guarantee a fair quality for the 
milk of general consumption ; as soon, however, as we 
come to the point to look at milk as a substitute for 
mother's milk, as a food for the new born-babe, we 
will from the perusal of the foregoing chapters agree 
that the present methods of control are of a glaring 
ineflficiency. 

It is, however, to be borne in mind that no change 
of method or added severity will be able to furnish 
the guarantee of pureness, which is so desirable, as long 
as milk has to pass through so many hands before it 
reaches the little consumer's mouth, and, that, at the 
time of its passing the milk inspector's test, it is only 
halfway, as it were, on the road which is strewn with 
possibilities of infection. If cow's milk is to be con- 
sidered the only healthy substitute for the mother's 
breast, then our best efforts should be directed to pro- 
duce this in the best form attainable. That no great 
success has been recorded, hitherto, in this direction 
may be largely attributed to the fact, that the difficul- 
ties to be o\'ercome are located in so many different 
fields of work. Most farmers and dairy engineers lack 
entirely the necessary medical knowledge, and often, 
also, the support of the medical men, while the 
physician, if he manages to keep up with the com- 
plexity of tasks before him, is seldom in a position to 



The Nor))ial Dairy. 138 

study the agriciiltiiral parts of the question or grapple 
with the problems of technical dairying. 

Every branch of production has, in its expanding 
development, been forced to acknowledge the sound- 
ness of the principle of division of labor, yet if we 
recapitulate what has been said about the necessary 
supervision of the physical condition of the animals 
furnishing the milk, about the necessity of sterilizing 
it immediateh- after drawing, and aboiit the Dollution 
it is exposed to b\' unclean handling before consump- 
tion, we will reach the conclusion that the production 
of infants' milk is an exception to this rule of divi- 
sion of labor, and that no guarantee of pureness and 
absolute healthfulness can be expected or given iiu/rss 
the entire process of production, from the cow's 
mouth to the baby's bottle, is covered by one and the 
same responsibility, and controlled in every stage of 
handling by those only competent to do so : the phy- 
sicians and the veterinarian of the neighborhood. 

We have seen that the piirpose of sterilizing milk 
is not only to give it keeping qualities by the deaden- 
ing of all germs, also those of disease, but h\ this act 
to make it healthy. The demand that sterilized milk 
exclusively should be sold and used for the nourish- 
ment of infants and children is a just demand, be- 
cause the delicate texture of the infant's intestines 
more easily gives way before the irritations produced 
by the bacteria and their exsudations. Besides, the 
experiences of late years have forced upon us the 
painful conviction that not infrequentlv there lurks 

]0 



l:U A Nczc Dairy Industry. 

danger to health and life in the consnniption of un- 
sterilized or raw milk by the transfer of germs of dis- 
ease. This experience is to be regretted so much 
the more, as its recognition is connected with the fact 
that this danger is inherent also to the progressive 
development of onr dairying indnstr\-, or at least, 
that it is spread b}' it. There is no donbt bnt that 
creameries, on the plan of association, are liable to 
spread disease ; that the>' may be, and have been, the 
medium to cause smaller epidemics, such as of typhus, 
scarlet fever, etc., even though they possess all advan- 
tages of centralization and co-operation, they are, 
however, not exempt from the great drawback which 
adheres to all large institutions for distributing food- 
stuffs : the wholesale spreading and distributing of 
disease. 

But we need, most decidedly, protection against 
such danger, and need it more particularly at such 
times when the spreading of a disease has gained 
larger dimensions, when the epidemic is rampant in 
the houses of our cities and infection lurks behind 
every imaginable vehicle. Ever since the study of 
bacteriology has taught us that contageous diseases 
are spread by bacteria or other low organisms, there 
has been research on foot to investigate the roads on 
which these infections move. Contrary to the former 
l)elief that it was the local sanitary condition alone 
that promoted a spreading, one has now cast suspicion 
on the foods and beveraoes — water and milk — being 



The Noi'Dial Dairy. 135 

of universal consumption as the most likel}- promoters 
of infection. 

But even, if in case of such emergencies, the local 
authorities should be able and competent to close such 
dairies or creameries to whose door the spreadino- of 
a disease has been brought home, this would not con- 
stitute a reniedv, because the damage has already been 
done, as it is generally nimbler footed than the au- 
thorities. It is, therefore, to the preventive measures 
that we should turn our attention and efforts. More 
certainly is this true in regard to milk when we re- 
member that it is apt to convey not only the germs 
of disease specific to mankind, but also some of those 
of the bovine species. 

It would lead us too far from our subject if we 
should dwell on the methods that might be adopted 
for the prevention of infection by the means of milk, 
because, however urgently necessary they may be, 
still they might prove but too liable in their execu- 
tion to seriousl}' hamper and discourage an industry 
which it has taken the best efforts of the farmer, the 
scientist and the statesman to advance to the position 
of meritorious efficiency to which we have seen it 
lifted within the last few years. 

Recognizing the difficulties that lay in the way of 
general disinfection of all milk brought to market we 
should turn to the next best expedient that offers : to 
produce and insure in the vicinity of every urban 
population, and within a distance of easy control, a 
certain quantity of milk especially reserved and 



lo<> A JVccc Dairy I)idiistr\'. 

treated for the consuinptiou of infants. This idea 
has been partially carried out in a number of places 
where we hear of dairy farms furnishing- '' certified 
milk," an article purporting to be better and cleaner 
than other milk, and, as long as this certificate is one 
of real merit and not mereh- an advertisement, this 
milk is decidedly far superior to one of unknown 
origin, and its production a token of a very laudable 
spirit of enterprise — a step in the right direction — 
even if we know, from the foregoing, that such milk 
can lay no claim to being a healthy food for infants, 
inasmuch as it lacks being brought closer in its con- 
stituents to mothers' milk. 

For the above named reasons the establishment of 
dairy farms for the production of prepared infants' 
milk, in close proximity to all urban populations, will, 
in the near future, receive greater attention, not only 
from the farmers, but, also, from the medical frater- 
nity and the local authorities, from which parts the>' 
should receive all encouragement proportionate to 
the efficiency of their services. 

The conditions to be exacted from such an estab- 
lishment should bind the dairyman to the following 
stipulations : 

1. To use no milk from any cow until eight days 
have elapsed after parturition ; nor from any cow- 
six weeks before such event. 

2. To use no milk from any cow in heat, off her 
feed, sick or any ways deranged, nor whilst being 
treated with stronglv acting internal medicines. 



The A'oni/a/ Dairy. \'M 

:>. To keep sick animals in a separate stable, tended 
1)y a special attendant. 

4. To nse the milk of any cow for no longer a 
period than seven months rnnning. 

•"). To keep partnritant cows separated from the 
milking cows. 

(). To keep neither horses, steers nor sheep in same 
stable with milking cows. 

7. To feed milking cows on the most appro\'ed 
principles for a\'oiding acidity in milk, exclnding all 
refuse feed, such as wet brewers' or distillers' grains 
or mash, adstringent oil cake or swill of any kind, and 
to water cows with pure water. 

5. To feed to cows daily a proper allowance of salt. 
'.». To avoid all sudden changes in feeding, particn- 

larh' from dr\- to green fodder and back, never to 
pasture milking cows but on artificial j)astnre of 
clovers and grasses, and to avoid all kind of feed or 
fodder having a laxative effect. 

!<>. To keep cows scrupulously clean in comforta- 
ble, well ventilated stables, exercised, well bedded and 
kindly treated. 

11. To exclude from the milk the first five strip- 
pings out of each teat at e\-er\- milking. 

12. To keep all milk free from any and all chemi- 
cal admixture or adulteration, such as salt, borax, 
salicylic acid or others. 

l:>. To keep no manure pile in close proximity of 
stables. 

14. To enforce utmost cleanliness from all persons 



loS A Neiv Dairy Indus fry. 

engaged in milking, and handling milk, and to 
enforce strictest abstinence from the nse of tobacco 
and liqnor from all persons engaged in drawing, hand- 
ling, preparing, or distribnting milk. 

1 "). To stop delivery of milk or collection of empty 
vessels to and from all premises where infections 
disease is known to exist. 

10. To snperintend with nntiring vigilance the 
cleansing and sterilizing by steam, hot water and soda 
of all ntensils and apparatns used in handling, prepar- 
ing and conveying milk. 

17. To engage the services of a competent veteri- 
narian for the freqnent inspection and investigation 
of the sanitary condition of the milk cows, and fnr- 
nish clean bill of health every month from the veteri- 
narian for all cows wdiose milk is used in preparing 
the normal infants' milk. 

IS. To facilitate in every way, in all premises and 
at all times, the thorongh inspection of the entire es- 
tablishment by members of a committee of the medi- 
cal profession, or the local board of health. 

It will be conceded that the proposed conditions for 
the production of pure milk can easily be fulfilled 
without incurring great expense, and this is a require- 
ment that sliould not be lost sight of, for, in fixing 
these stipulations, a reasonable limit to precautionary 
measures must be admitted, without which, the con- 
sequent considerable increase in cost of production 
would tell on the price of the milk, tend to put it 
bevond the reach of the poorer classes, and thus frus- 



Till' Xornial Dairy. loJ) 

trate to a considerable degree the good for wliich the 
establishment had been created. It is well to remem- 
ber that conditions which might appear ideal to the 
medical mind may be absolntely inipracticable of ex- 
ecntion. 

However plain the detrimental effects of common 
impure milk may be to the life in general, and to that 
of infants in particular, the entire bearing of the 
matter and the importance of ameliorating such con- 
ditions is not recognized by the masses of the popu- 
lation, nor will the public be found willing to pay a 
higher price for infants' milk as long as the entire 
I'isiblc amelioration would consist in a new-fangled 
stopper on the bottle or in a colored lal^el around its 
neck. 

The sulitelty and the minuteness of the noxious 
germs contained in ordinary cow's milk, and the im- 
possibilit}' of furnishing a dail\- certificate of their 
deadening or removal, based on the finding of a 
chemical and a microscopical investigation, make this 
business, in a great degree, one of confidence placed 
by the public in the honesty of the dairyman. But 
experience has shown that even the greatest honest}" 
on the part of the dairyman and his skill in steriliz- 
ing is not in all cases suflficient to insure an untainted 
milk to an infant, because all precautions are futile if 
the sterilized milk, prior to its consumption, is left to 
the manipulation of careless and unreliable persons. 

This is one of the reasons why infants' milk should 
be furnished in hermeticallv closed small bottles of a 



140 A Arxc Dairy Jiuiiistry. 

shape to allow the adjusting of the feeding nipple 
immediately after removing the stopper shortly before 
warming and using the milk. Although small steril- 
izing apparatus exist, and may be bought, }'et, for 
reasons previously demonstrated, they can by no 
means be considered as giving the same security of a 
dairying and sterilizing establishment, and German 
scientists agree that the manufacture of infants' milk 
cannot be conducted with any degree of success in 
the household of the consumer, or by parties not per- 
fectly versed in the functions or properties of the dif- 
ferent ingredients and equipped with the most perfect 
appliances that will insure the production of an article 
of uniform composition and merit. 

(Jther reasons pointing toward the advisability of 
entrusting a larger establishment with the manufac- 
ture of infants' milk are that — 

1. By the use of the cream separator a large percent- 
as:e of the most noxious germs are retained in the bowl 
of the machine, imbedded in the separator slime. 

"2. The percentage of fat contained in the fresh 
milk, to be converted into infants' milk, can be ascer- 
tained and regulated daily before and after manu- 
facturing the infants' milk. 

i). All mixtures are performed with greater accurate- 
ness and precision, because everything is done by 
exact weight and measure, and not by table or tea- 
spoonfuls. 

4. All mixing, sterilizing and cleansing is done 
more efficiently, quicker and cheaper. 



The Normal Dairy. 141 

o. All materials used are procured wholesale, at a 
considerable reduction in price, which tells on the 
price of the milk. 

x'Vfter reviewing the points which could make such 
an establishment, or a number of them, a desirable 
acquisition to the neighborhood of an urban popula- 
tion, it is but fair to ascertain if this will, under 
existing circumstances and conditions, equally be 
a desirable undertaking for a dairy farmer. Binding 
himself to the afore enumerated clauses, for the con- 
duction of his establishment, he is certainly entitled 
to the moral and efficient support of the authorities 
and the board of health. The guarantee of pureness, 
which is given to the products of the establishment 
by a constant or periodical supervision, is absolutely 
necessary to guard the public from imposition, as well 
as the dairyman from the appearance of a spurious 
article, which would at once tend to destroy his un- 
dertaking bv discrediting normal infants' milk 
through the rapacity of unscrupulous rival parties. 
For the same reason, the retailing of normal infants' 
milk should not go through the channel of the small 
milk trade, but through the establishment itself, 
through a designated number of drug stores or large 
milk traders. This business is one of confidence, 
because of the difficulty of daily testing the pure- 
ness of its products, it is, therefore, natural that it be 
undertaken by, or conceded to, only such parties who — 
apart from their physical and financial ability' to per- 



142 A Nfa' Dairy Industry. 

soiially superintend and foster it — have thoronghly 
mastered the theoretical and technical parts of the 
matter and can command the entire confidence of the 
"parties of the second part." On the other hand, it 
wonld be folly for a dairyman to nndertake the fitting 
out of a sterilizing establishment without the encour- 
agement and support just mentioned ; it seems, how- 
ever, unnecessary to dwell longer on this subject ; 
wherever undertaken, by the proper person and with 
the proper appliances, the advantages that may 
accrue to the sanitary condition and the welfare of 
the population it would serve, have been sponta- 
neously recognized. As an instance I will mention 
that it is a well established fact that since the estab- 
lishment of the dair}' of Mr. Bolle, in the German 
capital, the morality of the infants has been lowered 
twenty-five, per cent. 

As to general rules for the location of such an es- 
tablishment, they will, in a great measure, always be 
govered by local conditions, it should, however, cer- 
ly not be located at a greater distance from the popu- 
lation which consumes its products, than will allow of 
an easy supervision and rapid transportation. This 
distance will be regulated, in a manner, by the value 
of land in the vicinity of the city or town it w'ould 
have to serve. The advantages which close prox- 
imity may confer are entirely lost if the price of the 
milk has to be raised to meet the extra expense of 
high rents on land, and as long as transportation can 
be expeditously carried on, there need exist no other 



The Norma/ Dairy. 



14:5 



limit to the distance but that set by the possibility of 
effective medical control of the establishment. 

As regards transportion, it is well to remember 
that bottles with normal milk must never be filled to 
the brim, as part of the milk would boil out during 
sterilization ; they will, therefore, not stand pro- 
tracted shaking on rough roads as raw milk would, 
because the butter fat easih- collects in the neck of 
the bottle and butters out. 

In the time of old town dairies, a considerable in- 




Fig. 22-SliyilVlONTHAL SWISS BULL. 

fluence was accorded to the breed of cattle which 
should be kept by such furnishing milk for infants ; 
on the old continent, Kngland excepted, it was gen- 
erally believed that the Alpine breeds were the 
healthiest, and, therefore, the onlv proper breeds to 
furnish such milk ; since we ha\-e, however, learned 
to covert the milk of any healthy cow into a milk, 
which, in all its nourishing constituants, is identical 
to the human milk, irrespective of the relative pro- 
portions contained thereof in cow's milk, this ques- 



144 A A'eiu Dairy Industry. 

tion of breeds has lost a great deal of its importance, 
the main reqnsite now being : a healthy cow. 

The relation of fat to casein and of total percent- 
age of solids to that of albnmen is, however, a varia- 
ble quantity in the different breeds, and should be 
studied and taken into account when planning the 
manufacture of normal infants' milk. The work of 
a number of experiment stations on this line has been 
invaluable in determining the respecti\'e percentages 
in the milk of the standard breeds of cattle. 

The average composition found by analyses of 
28,000 samples of milk was total solids, 12. (IS per 
cent.; fat, 3.01 ; solids, not fat, S.77 ; specific gravity, 
1.031S. When computed for an entire period of lac- 
tation, the following figures were found for the re- 
spective breeds : 



The Normal Dairy 



145 



^ 2 

id- CfQ 
7Q ^ 












o o o o 



X ii li 



3 






Number of 
Analyses. 

Water, 
Per Cent. 

Total 
Solids, 
Per Cent. 

Solids, not 
Fat, Pr. Ct. 

Fat, 
Per Cent. 

Casein, 
Per Cent. 

Milk sugar, 
Per Cent. 



Ash, 
Per Cent. 



Nitrogen, 
Per Cent. 



Daily milk 
vield, ll)s. 



U(> 



A Neu' Dairy Industry 



o 


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IT: 


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^' 


rt 


^ 


^ 


"^ 






X 


'wO 








"^v. 


o 




ri 




^_ 


N 


rt 




O 





o 

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The Normal Dairy. 



147 



The following tables give the results of investiga- 
tions by the New York Experiment Station for the 
production of milk only, as the results for the sepa- 
rate breeds materially differ when it comes to the 
production of cream, butter and cheese. 



Tabulated Summary Showing Relative Results of 
Comparison for Different Breeds of Cattle ivith 
Reference to Product io)i of Milk. Figures based on 
Loivest results as lOO. 



^ 








a! 












o 


ir. 


W 


^ 



Relativecost of food eaten 114 

Relative aniount of milk 
procUiced 144 

Relative cost of milk. . . . 117 

Relative amount of milk 
solids produced 125 

Relation of per cent, of 
milk solids 107 

Relative cost of milk sol- 
ids Ill 

Relative value of milk at' 
1.28 cents per lb \ 144 

Relative valiie of milk 
based on solids at O'i 
per lb 125 

Relative value of milk 
based on fat at 2(1 '3 
cents per lb j 116 

Relative apparent profit, 
from milk j 151 

Relative actual profitj 
from milk I 1(18 



131 


100 


173 
114 


100 
145 


151 


100 


108 


128 


106 


122 



128 

185 
282 

189 



185 

199 
100 

162 



171 i 100 



126 I 100 
107 102 
185 : 199 



151 100 189 I 162 



121 

127 
189 

184 

180 

110 

127 



184 , 100 
194 j 100 
214 : 100 



156 ' 145 
177 224 
202 255 



123 

152 
120 

150 

121 

100 

142 



184 150 



154 
150 

171 



149 
211 
245 



14S 



W Ay'zc Dairy Industry. 



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The Xoruial Dairy. 14i( 

When we turn to the question as to which breed of 
cows will be the most economical for the production 
of the normal infants' milk, we must bear in mind 
that the constituants of the milk we should produce 
are fixed quantities, and that no considerations of 
preference for any particular breed should interfere in 
the decision. 

Considerable controversy has also arisen over the 
physical condition of the cow, in respects to her 
abilit\- to produce a pure milk, unimpaired bv such 
changes as arise from the collateral functions of the 
generative organs, the strictest doctrinarians advocat- 
ing the exclusion of all animals in a state of preg- 
nane}', and this exaction has been and can be fulfilled 
by dairy farmers situated in localities where cows 
may be advantageously disposed of to the butcher 
after finishing their period of lactation, but this con- 
dition does, more generalh', not prevail in the neigh- 
borhood of those populations that stand in the most 
urgent need of a normal dairy establishment and, 
where the exactment of such a stipulation would 
mean a loss of, perhaps, fifty per cent, on the \'alue of 
the cows and, correspondingly, demand the reimburse- 
ment of this loss b}' an advance on the selling price 
of the milk. 

As to feeding the cows, it should be made the rule 
to feed only morning and evening and to avoid feed- 
ing dry roughage during the time of milking. 

Although the size and manner of construction of 

the stable, or barn, in which the cows are kept is not 
11 



150 A Nczv Dairy Industry. 

of a direct influence on the quality of the milk pro- 
duced as long as it is well arranged, properly lighted 
and ventilated, yet there are some reflections of im- 
portance which should be considered in connection 
therewith. In the columns of our agricultural and 
dairying periodicals we frequently come across the dis- 
cription of so called " model barns," the model part 
of which varies, however, as to the point of view 
from which the owner has started in erecting it. 
Manv of them consult only their own advantage, 
others try to make their cattle comfortable, some try 
to combine the interest of both owner and cattle, 
very few, liowe\'er, pay any regard to the interest the 
consuming public may have in the construction of 
the barn. A barn may be admirably planned for eco- 
nomical management; when the cattle are, however, 
fastened in stanchions on cramped platforms their 
welfare has not entered on the "model" arrangement, 
or if a barn, with an otherwise faultless arrangement, 
stores the manure in a cellar beneath it, then the 
interest of the public has not been taken into account 
in la}'ing out the model part of this barn, because it 
makes it unfit to produce pure and untainted milk, 
such as we should insist on for the production of 
normal infants' milk. 

Wlien a farmer or dairyman has no other interests 
to consult but his own, when building a new barn, he 
is free to indulge in any eccentricities that may be 
prompted by a variety of motives, some based on 
IDra:tical experience and economical calculations, 



The Normal Dairy. 151 

others again, however, on motives far less meriting 
of imitation. I always feel a genuine pity for the 
possessor of a very large barn, a few of which I have 
seen, and seen photographs and descriptions of many 
more, particularly located in this country ; they are, 
in most cases, very creditable testimonials to the de- 
signing carpenter's skill, and pretty board and shingle 
monuments to the owner's length of purse, but as for 
their usefulness and merit for an establishment pro- 
ducing infants' milk after the methods herein de- 
scribed and under the supervision of or under contract 
with a medical board, they should be entirely con- 
demned. The normal dairy must not only be able to 
supply the requisite infants' milk, it should also be 
regulated in a manner to offer the greatest possible 
security for maintaining this supply continuousl}-, 
because a sudden falling off from it might mean in- 
terrupted development and serious inconvenience to 
many, and, perhaps, death to some infants. This se- 
curity is not found in the large barns or stables, 
where a disaster may sweep off the entire productive 
force in a few^ hours, or where an infectious disease 
brought in by one animal may — while in its latent 
period and, therefore, undetected- — spread and infect 
every animal in the whole herd. Therefore, when 
there is a chance to do so, it is advisable to keep the 
cows in separate barns, none to exceed thirty head. 
Newly bought animals, if not coming from stables in 
close proximity to the farm and from herds notori- 
ously free from all disease, should be kept confined 



152 A jV('7i' Dairy Industry. 

separately for a term of ten days. Whoever has had 
a chance to experience the trouble which epidemic 
al^ortion gives, its pugnacity' and infections character, 
will never advocate the building of a mammoth l)arn. 
Besides which, the limited number of cows mentioned 
above is just the number to be well cared for by one 
man, and I have ever found that attendants will work 
better and gi\'e more care wlien the\" know that the 
responsibility for any neglect cannot be loaded onto 
'' the other fellow." A good man will be proud of 
the good looks and thrift of his animals, because he 
knows that the credit for it is earned by himself alone. 
All over the Old Continent the vSwa.ss are renowned as 
being the best milkers and attendants on cattle. 
PVom my own experience, and from the testimony of 
hundreds that employ them, it is a well merited re- 
nown, so much so that in several countries any at- 
tendant on milk cows is termed a '' Swiss.'' 

Finally, the question ma)- arise how is the dairy- 
man, who intends taking in hand this branch of busi- 
ness, to insure himself and his undertaking in these 
times of hand to hand fight in competition against 
the multitude of those who, though too indolent or 
too careful to risk any capital in a new and untried 
industry at the start, yet fall upon it as on a legiti- 
mate prey as soon as they see their neighbor making 
a success of it. Unrestrained competition will, in all 
instances, tend to lower the standard of efficiency 
and merit in any product of general consumption, 
the quality of which cannot be judged by the outer 



The XorDial Dairy. 1 .1.') 

appLMrance. If the achaiitages to be gained ])y an 
nrljan popnlation from the establishment of a normal 
dairy are not recognized as meriting protection and 
support, then the dairyman is located near the wrong 
place. Not a single instance has, however, come to 
my knowledge of this ever happening. Quite the 
contrary ; these establishments have, particularly in 
Germany, multiplied rapidly, owing to the heart}' and 
effective support received at the hands of the medical 
fraternit\-. 



CHAPTER XII. 
Conclusion. 

However advantageous and promising an nndertak- 
ing may appear, yet exhaustive investigation and 
calculations of cost of production, and probable 
amount of sales, should form a principal factor in the 
decision. The dairyman intending to take up this 
industry, should first of all find out if the physicians 
of the place take an active interest in the matter. 
This is generally the case, as no doctor can afford to 
ignore or treat the subject with indifference; moreover, 
infants are, in most cases, the most ungrateful 
patients they have. The next step is to find out the 
number of residents who would, in all probability, be 
found willing to pay a higher price for a healthy in- 
fants' milk. On an average we may calculate on 
forty births a year for every 1,(100 inhabitants. We 
may further calculate tliat ten of these new-born in- 
fants will be nourished with normal milk for the en- 
tire first year, and twenty for a period of six months 
only. In the second year of their lives, infants 
should be able to take pure cow's milk, this should, 
however, always have been produced under observa- 
tion of all precautionary measures mentioned hereto- 
fore, and alwa)'s be sterilized. Let us calculate that 
for twenty children, in their second year, such sterfi- 



Coticlusion. loo 

ized cow's milk would be demanded, we would then 
figure on a total daily demand per thousand inhabi- 
tants, as follows : 

10 Infants in their 1st year, at O.Toqts. T.o qts. 
10 " " " 1st " " 1.00 " 10.0 " 
20Chikrn" " 2d " '• 1.00 " 20.0 " 



oT.o qts. 

This would be the milk necessary for infants in 
their first and second years, in many places, however, 
the consumption of normal infants' milk, and sterilized 
cow's milk, has risen to fifty quarts per 1,000 inhabi- 
tants daily, owing to a demand, for dyspeptics, and 
older children. From these quantities we ma\' judge 
that, even in smaller places, the establishment of the 
manufacture of normal milk may be renumerative, 
particularly as it may be sent to adjoining j^laces 
without spoiling. Experience has shown that in all 
cases there has been a steady increase in the demand. 
To encourage the introduction, medical men must be 
furnished with the means of testing the normal milk 
in their practice. Printed matter, setting forth the 
merits of 'the normal milk, should be mailed to all 
families where an infant has been born, and an ar- 
rangement can generally be made to receive the ad- 
dress of such families from the office of registration. 

In many instances the furnishing of normal milk 
to poor mothers, is a favorite w^ay of bestowing 
charity, and checks .should be printed for the receipt 
of stated quantities of milk, to facilitate this, and to 



15(5 A Nezc Dairy Iiiduslrv. 

avoid the <^i\'ing of cash, which is apt to be prevertecl 
to other uses. It will be found convenient to deliver 
the bottles in light wooden boxes, holding from fif- 
teen to twenty-five bottles each, the number varying 
with the size of the bottles. 




Fig. 25-CLEANSING BRUSH. 

Some trouble is experienced at the beginning with 
the returning of the bottles and rubber caps, and 
some strictness is required, on the part of the dairy- 
man, to oblige the patrons to return the bottles clean, 
or what this may mean to the consumer. We know 
that real cleansing means the application of steam, 
hot water, soda and the brush. This is a point of 
the greatest importance. The return of clean bottles 
must be insisted upon at all hazards. In connection 
wath this, and to illustrate the baneful effects of un- 
restricted competition, I will mention my experience 
wdien walking along Fifth avenue, New York City, 



Coiniiisioii. 



\:u 



in ■\Ia\- of this )'ear. From a milk wagon, gorgeously 
appointed, a clean -man was distributing dainty glass 
jars with milk to the basements of different resi- 
dences ; it struck me as a model arrangement, until 
I saw the man return with a load of empt}- jars. 
Thev had not been cleaned after emptying out the 
milk, and were in a state of disgusting filth and sour- 
ness. I imagine that if this milkman would object 
to receiving the bottles in this disgraceful condition 
the family would speedily find another milkman, 
less fanciful. 




Fig. 26-RIN8ING VAT. 

As for the premises required by th.e establishment, 
they should be of the same size as a creamery hand- 
ling the same quantity of milk. There should cer- 
tainly be four separate rooms, the first for the receiv- 
ing vat, cooler, heater and separator ; the second for 
the mixing, weighing and bottling ; the third for the 
sterilizer ; the fourth for the cleansing of bottles and 
utensils. All floors .should be cement laid, and on 
the same level, so that trucks carrying milk or bottles 



158 A Neza Dairy Industry. 

may be wheeled from one room to the other without 
obstruction. Ice house and storage should be close 
by. 

The cost of putting up and fitting an establishment 
of this kind can hardly be closely estimated for gen- 
eral direction, as they will change for every locality ; 
the principal items of expense may, howev^er, figure 
under the following : 

Steam boiler |3()0 00 

Babcock fat tester . 15 00 

Milk heater 45 00 

Milk cooler 45 00 

Cream separator 225 00 

Two bottle cleaning machines 28 00 

Filling apparatus 40 00 

Sterilizer 300 00 

Bacteria incubator 30 00 

Table and platform scales 50 00 

Bottles and rubber caps . . . 250 00 

Thermometer and other gla.ss instruments. . 24 00 

Mixing vats 80 00 

Smaller utsenils 35 00 

Packing ca.ses, labels, printing, advertising . 100 00 

Steam and water pipe bra.ss, work 125 00 

There is no absolute necessity for a steam engine, 
because the cream separator, which is the only ma- 
chine u.sed requiring power, can be bought with steam 
turbine, an arrangement which, for our purposes, 
must be recommended. 

The price which the dairyman is to receive for nor- 
mal milk will be regulated, in some degree, by the 



Coiuiusion. 



159 



price which common good cow's milk is obtaining at 
retail, and by the average amonnt of jDrosperity of the 
place. In a majority of cases the normal milk may 
be mannfactnred and sold at an advance of from fifty 
to seventy-five per cent, on the retail price of cow's 
milk, althongh, in many instances, double the price 
of ordinary milk is obtained. It seems needless to 
dwell on the necessity of a liberal supply of water for 
the uses of the normal dairy, the cleaning of the bot- 
tles alone requiring a considerable quantit}'. Where 
cool spring water cannot be counted upon all the 
year round, ice must be brought into requisition. 
This will always be a necessity in warmer climates, 
and it is just in these that the amelioration of exist- 
ing conditions for the production of a healthy infants' 
milk is the most uro-ent. 




d^^ 



Fig. 27-GOMBmED BRUSH AND RINSER. 

Short courses of practical instruction will be or- 
ganized, as purely theoretical instruction has proved 



Kid A iVczc Dairy Iiuiiislry. 

inadequate to impart that de^oree of securit}- which is 
an indispensiljlc condition to success for ever\'one 
contemplating- the manufacture of normal infants' 
milk. 

There can exist but little donljt that the near future 
will bring" into greater prominence the agitation now 
so ably sustained b)- a number of scientists, who, 
working on this field of in\-estigation, are the truest 
benefactors to infant mankind. 

The enactment of stricter codes for milk inspection, 
the rigid enforcement of those alread}' existing, the 
tuberculin test for all milk cattle, the pasteurization 
or sterilization of all merchantable milk, and the 
manufacture of artificial mothers' milk, will soon be 
demands in universal requisition ; it will be for the 
enterprising and intelligent dairyman to watch his 
chances, to keep abreast of the times he is living in, 
b}' considering whether existing circumstances do not 
warrant his embarking in this manufacture. Here is 
the chance, so seldom offered in our profession, for 
a man to lift himself abo\'e the great horde of com- 
petitors, b\' intelligence and progressis'e energ\" in pro- 
ducing an article, the success of which will depend on 
the theoretical and practical training of his mind and 
business capacity, more than on his aptitude to hold 
a plow, handle a pitchfork, or follow in the foot- 
prints of his forefathers. 



Coiniiisioii. ^'»1 

COMPARISON — WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND THER- 
MOMETERS. 

One American oallon is equal to 4 quarts (<< 'l pints. 
One American gallon is equal to S pints Of KJ ounces. 
One American gallon is equal to I'iS ounces ('/ ^ 

drachms. 
One barrel holds :\\^ gallons. 
One hogshead holds (3:5 gallons. 
One tierce holds 42 gallons. 
(;)ne puncheon holds S4 gallons. 
One gallon is equal to 1,4.");') liter. 
One gallon is equal to ;5,7S."') cub. centmeter. 
One gallon is equal to 10 pounds of water. 
One Engl. Imp. gallon contains 277 cub. inches. 
One ale gallon contains 2S2 cub. inches. 
One wine gallgn contains 231 cub. inches. 
One dry gallon contains 2().S 8-10 cub. inches. 
One bushel has 2,150 4-10 cub. inches. 
One quart dry measure is equal to 2^ pounds milk. 
One quart dry measure is equal to 1 1-7 quart liquid 

measure. 
One normal quart weighs 2.15 pounds. 
100 pounds of milk is equal to 47 quarts. 
One pound Troy is equal to 12 ounces, each S 

drachms, each 3 .scruples, each 20 grains. 



162 



A New Dairy Ijidustry 



Fahrenheit. 


Reumiir. 


Celsius. 


-f 257.0 


+ 100.0 


+ 125.0 


248.0 


96.0 


120.0 


230.0 


88.0 


110.0 


212.0 


80.0 


100.0 


194.0 


72.0 


90.0 


176.0 


64.0 


80.0 


158.0 


56.0 


70.0 


140.0 


48.0 


60.0 


122.0 


40.0 


50.0 


104.0 


32.0 


40.0 


86.0 


24.0 


30.0 


68.0 


16.0 


20.0 


50.0 


8.0 


10.0 


32.0 


0.0 


0.0 


+ 14.0 


= 8.0 


= 10.0 


= 4.0 


= 16.0 


= 20.0 


=22.0 


= 24.0 


=30.0 




The DAIRYMEN'S Supply Co. 

DAIRY ENGINEERS 

.. AND .. 

COMPLETE OUTFITTERS 

MANUFACTURERS AND 

FURNISHERS OF 

Hpparatus and Supplies for Creamery and H)airy 

No. 1937 market Street 
PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

Star Milk Cooler Co. 

Successors to 
EVAIVIS & MEIUI-IISIGS 

MANUFACTURERS OF 

The "STAR" 

IWILK AERATOR AND COOLER 

HADDONFIELD, N.J. 



ndM<ap^CT«KEB> IT THE 

74 CORTLdMBT STREET 
ISEW TOlIf 



The Vermont Farm Machine Co. 



n^HMF^STiSli 



iFECl/^L bmUT - - 



AlMl) 



- CKC/^nElT 5«PPL1I 

BELLOWS rdLLS 

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